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STATE  NOKMAl.  SCHOOL 

L08  AUGELES.  CAU*OKim1A 


UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 


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LIBRARY 


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HYBRID    CARNATION. 

A.   Scott.    Fevale    Parent  C     hybrid  B.    McGowan,    Male    Parent. 


AGRICULTURE 

Through  the   Laboratory 
and   School  Garden. 


A  MANUAL  AND  TEXT-BOOK  OF  ELE 

MENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

FOR  SCHOOLS. 

C.  R.  JACKSON 

Introducer  of  Practical  Agriculture  and  School  Gardening  into  thi  Slate 
Normal  School,  Kirks-ville,  Mc, 

MRS.  L.  S.  DAUGHERTY 

Assistant  in   Zoology,  State  Normal  School,  Kirks-ville,  Mo. 


"  Give  men  their  gold,  and  knaves  their  power, 
Let  fortune's  bubbles  rise  and  fall. 
Who  plows  a  field,  or  trains  a  flower, 
Or  plants  a  tree  is  more  than  all; 

For  he  who  blesses,  most  is  blessed, 

And  God  and  man  will  own  his  worth 

Who  seeks  to  leave  as  his  bequest 
An  added  beauty  to  the  earth." 


NEW     YORK 

ORANGE     JUDD     COMPANY 

1913 


Copyright,  1905,  1908 

By 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY. 


IPrinted  in  U.  S.  A.; 


INTRODUCTION. 


From  the  growth  and  drift  of  public  sentiment 
it  is  evident  that  education  in  Agriculture  will 
soon  be  offered  in  all  good  elementary  schools 
of  our  country.  This,  from  the  nature  of  the 
case,  seems  unavoidable,  because  such  instruc- 
tion is  essential  both  for  utility  and  for  culture. 
It  is  an  essential  utility,  because  it  is  the  only 
means  of  furnishing  adequate  conceptions  of 
the  one  fundamental  occupation  of  mankind 
upon  which  all  other  occupations  depend. 

For  the  masses  it  is  an  essential  basis  of  true 
culture  and  refinement,  as  illustrated  in  its  ear- 
liest fruitage,  which  is  the  adornment  of  homes 
through  improved  lawns,  shade-trees,  walks, 
driveways,  gardens,  flowers,  etc.,  thereby  open- 
ing the  avenues  to  consciousness  and  revealing 
in  the  most  pleasing  way  the  beauty  world  all 
around  us. 

This  volume  is  unique.  It  is  not  the  product 
of  its  authors'  imaginations.  No  one  designed 
it  to  exploit  a  theory  or  a  person.  It  is  an  out- 
line of  work  done — done  by  ordinary  people 
under  ordinary  conditions. 

The  Agricultural  Laboratory  and  the  School 
Garden  of  the  Kirksville  Normal  School  have 


Ti  INTRODUCTION. 

grown  from  very  small  beginnings.  They  are 
now  the  objects  of  keen  interest  in  many  parts 
of  the  United  States.  Their  purpose  at  all 
times  has  been  to  prepare  teachers  to  give  prac- 
tical and  definite  agricultural  instruction  in 
public  schools  of  all  kinds. 

John  R.  Kirk. 


PREFACE. 


The  preparation  of  this  book  was  undertaken, 
primarily,  that  the  classes  in  Agriculture  of  the 
State  Normal  School  of  Kirksville,  Missouri, 
might  have  in  one  book  the  directions  for  all 
laboratory  experiments  and  exercises,  and  such 
information  as  would  enable  them  to  under- 
stand the  results  of  these  experiments. 

We  believe  that  the  book  will  meet  the  needs 
of  most  schools  where  Agriculture  is  taught  or 
should  be  taught. 

It  has  been  deemed  necessary  to  embody  in 
the  text  such  facts  and  principles  of  Geology 
and  Botany  as  are  absolutely  essential  to  the 
understanding  of  agricultural  principles  and 
processes. 

The  work  is  intended  to  cover  one  year's 
time,  but  any  part  of  it  may  be  omitted  if 
the  necessary  materials  cannot  be  obtained. 
The  time  to  be  spent  upon  each  phase  of  the 
work  must  be  determined  by  the  class,  the 
materials  accessible,  and  the  teacher. 

It  is  neither  pedagogical  nor  scientific  to  tell 
a  student  what  he  can  find  out  for  himself.  It 
takes  away  both  the  incentive  and  the  necessity 
for    experimental    work  to   foretell   the    result. 


viii  PREFACE. 

Our  aim  has  been  to  present  actual  experimental 
work  in  every  phase  of  the  subject  possible,  and 
to  state  the  directions  for  such  work  so  that  the 
student  can  perform  it  independently  of  the 
teacher,  and  to  state  them  in  such  a  wav  that 
the  results  will  not  be  suggested  by  these  direc- 
tions. One  must  perform  the  experiment  to 
ascertain  the  result. 

Any  energetic  teacher  can,  by  carefully  going 
over  the  work  in  advance,  working  out  the  ex- 
periments himself  and  reading  the  references,  be 
able  to  do  creditable  class  work  if  he  is  willing 
to  "  dig,"  but  it  is  useless  for  any  one  else  to 
undertake  to  be  an  agriculturist  or  to  teach 
agriculture. 

Every  available  source  has  been  drawn  upon 
for  the  material  used  in  this  book,  but  the  plan 
of  presenting  it  is  original,  as  well  as  most  of 
the  experiments  and  exercises,  and  many  practi- 
cal ideas  gained  from  experience  in  teaching. 

We  wish  to  express  our  grateful  appreciation 
to  all  those  who  have  so  kindly  helped  us  by 
reviewing  the  manuscript  or  by  loaning  us  illus- 
trations. 

The  following  persons  from  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  have 
been  very  helpful:  The  manuscript  was  examined 
by  B.  T.  Galloway,  Chief  of  the  Division  of 
Plant  Industry;  W.  J.  Spillman,  Agrostologist ; 
A.    F.    Woods,    Pathologist    and   Physiologist  ; 


PREFACE.  il 

and  M.  B.  Waite,  Assistant  Pathologist.  The 
chapters  on  "Propagation,"  "Improvement," 
and  "  Pruning  "  were  read  by  L.  C.  Corbett, 
Horticulturist,  and  the  one  on  "  Enemies  of 
Plants  "  by  the  Entomologist,  Mr.  Wilcox. 
"  Ornamentation  of  School  and  Home 
Grounds"  was  read  by  Mr.  Crosby.  The  chap- 
ter on  "  Enemies  of  Plants  "  was  also  read  by 
H.  Garman,  State  Entomologist  of  Kentucky. 
The  first  half  of  the  book  was  examined  also  by 
Professor  Mumford,  Acting  Director  of  Missouri 
Experiment  Station,  and  by  W.  T.  Carrington, 
State  Superintendent  of  Schools.  The  second 
half  was  examined  by  J.  C.  Whitten,  Horticul- 
turist, Missouri  Experiment  Station.  The  first 
chapter  was  criticised  by  C.  F.  Marbut,  Assist- 
ant Professor  of  Geology,  University  of  Missouri. 

The  second  half  of  the  manuscript  was  ex- 
amined by  Dr.  L.  S.  Daugherty,  of  the  State 
Normal  School,  Kirksville,  Missouri.  The  entire 
manuscript  was  submitted  to  H.  J.  Waters,  Su- 
perintendent of  Agriculture,  World's  Fair,  St. 
Louis,  Missouri.  The  chapter  on  Milk  and  Its 
Care  was  written  by  C.  H.  Eckels,  of  the  Mis- 
souri State  University. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  following  persons 
and  Experiment  Stations  for  illustrations  :  Ex- 
periment Stations  of  Minnesota,  West  Virginia, 
Rhode  Island,  New  Hampshire,  Kansas,  Mis- 
souri,  Ithaca,   New  York,   New  Jersey,   Texas, 


X  PREFACE. 

and  that  of  Hampton  Institute  (Va.) ;  to  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  ;  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  ;  Ladies  Home 
Journal ;  Or2iV\gft  Judd  Co.;  Waugh's  "Land- 
scape Gardening" ;  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. ;  Leg- 
gett  &  Brother;  The  Deming  Co.,  and  others 
mentioned  with  the  figures. 

The  Authors. 

KiRKSVILLE,  Mo.,  1905. 

To  the  earlier  edition  has  been  added  a  chap- 
ter on  "  Farm  Animals"  by  E.  A.  Trowbridge, 
of  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station.  Several 
figures  have  been  inserted  and  additional  text 
has  been  written  on  the  School  Garden.  A 
number  of  changes  and  additions  have  been 
made  in  other  chapters.  The  whole  book  has 
been  gone  over  critically  and  parts  which  have 
proved  impracticable  or  doubtful  have  been 
omitted. 

The  Authors. 

JrLY   1ST,  IJOow 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER.  PAGE. 

I.  Nature  and  Formation  of  Soils   ....  3 
II.  Classification   and   I'hysical   Properties 

OF  Soils 43 

III.  Soil   Moisture  and   Preparation   of  the  '^ 

Soil 59 

IV.  The  Soil  as  Related  to  Plants    ....  'j'j 
V.  Leguminous  Plants 109 

VI.  Principles  of  Feeding 131 

VII.  Rotation  of  Crops 153 

VIII.  Milk  and  Its  Care 163 

IX.  Propagation  of  Plants 201 

X.  Improvement  of  Plants 245 

XL  Pruning  of  Plants 271 

XII.  Enemies  of  Plants 289 

XIII.  Ornamentation    of    School    and    Ho.AtE 

Grounds 349 

XIV.  Farm  Animals 393 

General  References  : 

Weeds       437 

Forest  Trees  of  America 437 

Agricultural  Publications  : 

Publications  of  United  States  Department  of 

Agriculture 438 

Publications  of  State  Experiment  Stations    .  438 

Agricultural  Experiment  Stations 439 

Publishing  Houses 441 

Glossary , 442 

Index 445 

xi 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE. 

Red  and  White  Carnations  with  Hybrid  Produced  by 

Crossing Frontispiece. 

Wind-blown  Sand-drifts 8 

Planting,  Beach  Grass  to  Hold  the  Sand  at  Cape  Cod,  Mass.  8 

Apparatus  for  Experiment  i ,     .     .  lo 

Deposition  of  Material  Upon  Slacking  of  Stream     ...  16 

Shales  "Creeping"  Under  the  Action  of  Frost     ....  20 

Formation  of  Glaciers 21 

Action  of  Glacier  Drifts 23 

Mechanical  Action  of  Rain  .     .     .     .  n 26 

Roots  of  Forest  Trees  Opening  a  Rocky  Subsoil      .     ,     .  29 

Vegetation  Protecting  the  Soil 30 

How  the  Farm  is  Retained 37 

View  of  an  Irrigating  Ditch  When  Made 39 

View  of  the  Same  Ditch  Ten  Years  Later 39 

Fifth  Grade  Children  Collecting  Different  Kinds  of  Soil  47 

Temperature  Curves  of  a  Humous  Soil 50 

Apparatus  for  Experiment  5 52 

Apparatus  for  Experiment  6 53 

Apparatus  for  Experiment  7 54 

Apparatus  for  Experiment  9 61 

Apparatus  for  Experiment  13 67 

A  Good  Plow 69 

A  Plank  Harrow /O 

A  Rolling  Cutter  Harrow 70 

\  Spring-toothed  Harrow 71 

A  Coulter-toothed  Harrow 71 

To  Show  the  Effect  of  Deep  and  Shallow  Plowing     .     .  y2> 

Showing  Effect  of  Nitrate i^ 

Tubercles  on  Velvet  Bean  Produced  by  In(xculatif>n     .     .  X3 

.\  Covered  Barn-yard 103 

Comparison  of  Vetch  Plants 111 

Roots  of  Yellow  Soy-bean 112 

Alfalfa  Plant 115 

The   Cow-pea 1-4 

The  Soy-bean 1-5 

xii 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  xiit 

PAGE. 

Round  Silo,  Missouri  Agricultural  College  Farm      i     .     .  149 

Wheat  Grown  After  Cow-peas 155 

Pure  and  Impure  Milk  Highly  Magnified 165 

Pasteurizing  Apparatus <  167 

A  Guernsey  Cow — Charmante  of  the  Gron  14442     .     .     .  172 

A  Jersey  Cow — Imp.  Jersey  Venture  122508 172 

An  Ayrshire  Cow — Viola  Drummond 174 

A  Holstein  Cow 174 

Glassware  for  Babcock  Tester 178 

Hand-power  Babcock  Tester 179 

Cooley  Creamer 185 

A  Modern  Hand-power  Cream  Separator 187 

Barrel  Churtt    , 191 

Farm  Dairy  Butter-worker 195 

Students  Molding  and  Wrapping  Butter 197 

Catalpa  Tree 203 

Seedlings  of  Indian  Corn 210 

Red  Fir  (elevation)  9,000  feet) 213 

Red  Fir  (elevation,  4,700  feet) 2I3 

Rooted  Tips  of  a  Seedling  Raspberry  CaUe 218 

Leaf  Cutting — Whole  Leaf 219 

Leaf  Cutting — Part  of  Leaf 221 

Leaf  Cutting  of  Sansevieria  scylanica 221 

Tip  Cutting  of  a  Chrysanthemum 222 

Cutting  of  Heliotrope 222 

Cutting  of  Oleander  Rooting  in  Water 223 

Stem  Cutting  of  Umbrella-plant  Rooting  in  Water  .     .     .  22;^ 

Removing  a  Plant  from  a  Pot 224 

The  Plant  Removed  from  the  Pot 224 

Children  Potting  Plants 226 

Twig  of  White  Elm 227 

Position  of  Hard-wood  Cutting  in  Soil 228 

Rooted  Grape   Cutting 228 

Grape  Cutting 229 

Cutting  of  Blackberry  Root 229 

The  Way  to  Remove  a  Bud 230 

One-year-old  Peach  Seedlings 231 

Stages  in  Budding 232 

One-year-old  Piece-root  Graft 233 

Steps  in  Root-grafting 234 

Dormant  Apple  Twig 235 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE. 

Steps  in  Stem-grafting 236 

Mound  Layering 239 

Variation  in  Grains  of  Corn 246 

Improvement  of  Corn  by  Selection 251 

Plant   Rosettes 255 

Potato  Plant 257 

Modification  of  Cosmos  by  Pruning 258 

The  Parts  of  a  Flower 262 

Orange  Bud  and  Blossoms 263 

Orange  Flower 264 

Nearly  Mature  Hybrid  Orange 264 

Cosmos  Flowers 266 

Diagram  Showing  Method  of  Selecting  and  Improving  Seed  267 
Diagrammatic  Cross-Section  of  a  Basswood  Stem  Two 

Years    Old 273 

Improper  and  Proper  Pruning 273 

Grass  Growing  in  Cavity — Result  of  Improper  Pruning  .  275 

Same  Tree  After  Cavity  Has  Been  Repaired 275 

The  Way  to  Remove  a  Large  Limb 276 

"VVhere  to  Cut  the  New  Growth 277 

Apple-tree  Headed  Low 280 

Trees  Growing  Close  Together  for  Timber 281 

Norway  Maple 283 

Net  for  Collecting  Insects 291 

Cyanide   Bottle 292 

Breeding-jar  for  Rearing  Insects 292 

Collecting    Insects 294 

A  Bucket  Spray 304 

The  Bordeaux  Nozzle 305 

Hand   Spray 305 

Meadow-lark 308 

House    Wren 309 

Four  Common  Seed-eating  Birds 311 

Four  Common  Weeds,  the  Seeds  of  which  are  Eaten  by  Birds  313 

Weed  Seeds  Commonly  Eaten  by  Birds 314 

"Look  out!" 316 

.liuitis   lypUHCtata,   Say 318 

Ladybug  and  Larvje  Preying  Upon  Scale  Insects  Infest- 
ing a   Pear 319 

Bpilachna  cornipta 319 

Chrysopa  Species 320 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  xv 

PAGE. 

Ichncumon-fly  Depositing  an  Egg  within  Cocoon    .     .     .  321 

Ants  Milking  Plant-lice 325 

American  Tent-caterpillar 326 

Baltimore   Oriole   Attacking  the   Nest  of  the  American 

Tent-caterpillar Z'^'] 

Forest  Tent-cocoons  in  Apple   Leaves 328 

Forest  Tent-caterpillars  Feeding  Upon  Elm  Leaves    .     .  329 

Codling-moth 330 

Round-headed  Apple-borer ZZZ 

Saperda  Candida,  Fab 334 

Brown  Rot 227 

Black  Rot 338 

Grapes  from  Vineyard  Affected  with  Black  Rot  ....  339 

An  Apple  Attacked  by  Bitter-rot  Fungus 340 

Apple  Scab 341 

Agricultural  Class,  State  Normal  School,  Kirksville,  Mo.  348 

A  Country  School-yard — Bare  and  Unattractive  ....  350 

The  Same  School-yard  Improved  by  Plantings  of  Shrubbery  350 

Fifth  Grade  Children  Planting  Their  Garden 354 

Fourth  Grade  Children  Caring  for  the  Lawn  Around  the 

School  Garden 355 

School  Gardening — Agricultural  Students 358 

Roman  Hyacinths 360 

Chinese  Sacred   Lily 361 

Geometrical   Designs 365 

Natural   Style 369 

Trees  Showing  Kinds  of  Texture 371 

American  Elm 374 

Ash        374 

A  Cool  and  Inviting  Retreat 376 

Ferns  and  Phlox 377 

Mass  of  Shrubbery 37F 

Dogwood  in  Flower 381 

Pansies 383 

Shall  the  Children  Pluck  Flowers  or  Rattle  Tin  Cans  in 

the   Back   Yard? 384 

Back-yard   Screen     385 

A  Bouquet  of  Sweet  Peas 386 

A  Small  Lake,  with  Well-selected  Plantings 388 

"Artist  Montrose" 405 

Hackney  Stallion  "Sir  Humphrey" 408 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE. 

Pcrchcron  Stallion  "Pink"' 411 

Pure-bred  Aberdeen  Angus  Steer  "Andy" 414 

"University    Daizie" 417 

Red-polled  Bull  "Bounce" 420 

Southdown  Wether 421 

Rambouillet   Ram 422 

Champion  Poland  China  Barrow 427 

Large  Yorkshire  Boar,  "Holywell  Royalty  II."     ....  429 

Single-comb  White  Leghorn  Cock 433 

Barred  Plymouth   Rock  Hen 433 

Buff  Cochin  Cock 434 

Liglit  Brahmas 434 


AGRICULTURE 

THROUGH  THE  LABORATORY 
AND  SCHOOL  GARDEN. 

2.6  <i>^^ 

OUTLINE    OF     CHAPTER    L 

NATURE  AND    FORMATION    OF   SOILS. 

^.—SOURCES    OF    ENERGY. 

I.  The  Earth's  Energy. 
II.  The  Sun's  Energy. 

^.—FACTORS    OF    SOIL    FORMATION. 

I.  The  Atmosphere. 

1.  //  Regulates  tJie  Toiipcraiure. 

2.  MoTCiJtcnts  of  the  AtniospJiere. 

3.  CJtemical  Action.     Experiment  i. 

4.  Alternations  of  Heat  and  Cold. 

11.  Water. 

1.  Chemical  action. 

2.  Mechanical  Action.       Disintegrating,     transporting, 

assorting.     Experiment  2. 
(i)  Rivers.     Exi'Eriment  3. 

(2)  Underground  Streams. 

(3)  Landslides. 

(4)  Lakes. 

(5)  The  Ocean. 

(6)  Frost. 


2  AGRICULTURE. 

(7)  ICK. 

(8)  Snowslidks. 

(9)  Glaciers. 
(10)  Icebergs. 

3.  Field  Exercise  No.  i. 

III.  Organic  Life. 

1.  Plant  Life. 

(i)  Mechanical  or  Physical  Effecte 

(2)  Chemical  Effects. 

(3)  Vegetable  Accumulations. 

2.  Animal  Life. 

(i)  Disintegration. 

(2)  Animal  Accumulations. 

Calcareous  Deposits. 

Siliceous  Deposits. 

Phosphatic  Deposits. 

3.  Environmental  Changes. 

4.  Field  Exercise  No.  2, 


CHAPTER  I. 

NATURE  AND   FORMATION   OF  SOILS. 

Soil  is  derived,  primarily,  from  rock  *  in  the 
broadest  sense  of  the  term.  The  cycle  of  tear- 
ing down  in  one  place  and  building  up  in  an- 
other has  been  constantly  going  on  for  ages, 
and  is  still  going  on  to-day.  It  is  to  this  cycle 
of  changes,  discussed  in  the  following  pages, 
that  we  owe  the  presence  of  the  loose  surface 
material  of  the  earth  (some  places  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  in  depth,  and  in  some  places  entirely 
wanting)  which  makes  it  possible  for  plants  and 
animals  to  live,  and  which  loose  material  forms 
the  basis  of  all  soil. 

.4.— SOURCES  OF  ENERGY. 

The  matter  which  constitutes  the  earth  and 
atmosphere,  though  it  cannot  be  destroyed,  is 
constantly  changing  its  form,  under  the  action 
of  existing  forces.  The  sources  of  all  these 
forces,  or  of  our  supply  of  energy,  are  the  earth 
and  the  sun. 

I.  The  Earth's  Energy. 

The  earth's  energy  is  from  within,  and  some 
of  its  manifestations  are  the  upheavals  and  dis- 
ruptions of  the  crust,   and,  greatest  of  all,  the 

*"Any  substance  constituting  a  portion  of  the  earths   crust 
...   is  called  a  rock." — Leconte's  Compend  of  Geology,  p.  178. 

3 


4  AGRICULTURE. 

force  of  gravity,  without  which  nothing  could 
remain  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  owing  to 
the  centrifugal  force  caused  by  the  rotation  of 
the  earth. 

Other  forms  of  energy  are  the  molecular;]! 
forces  of  cohesion^  and  adhesion,;]!  and  the 
atomic  force  of  chemical  affinity,  all  of  which 
exist  within  the  substances  themselves,  and  act 
at  insensible  distances. 

11.  The  Sun's  Energy. 

The  great  source  from  which  we  derive,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  most  of  our  energy  is  the 
sun.  "  The  circulation  of  winds  and  waters, 
the  changes  of  temperature,  and  the  activities 
of  living  beings  all  depend  upon  the  sun's 
energy,"  ''^  without  which  there  could  be  upon 
the  surface  of  the  earth  no  motion  and  no   life. 

The  sun's  energy  comes  to  us,  it  is  believed, 
by  means  of  waves  in  the  ether  of  space.  Some 
of  these  waves  produce  the  various  colors,  or  are 
what  we  might  call  light  waves  ;  others  are  not 
perceptible  to  the  human  eye,  but  are  heat 
waves  ;  still  others  are  especially  productive  of 
chemical  changes,  as  is  manifested  in  photog- 
raphy. 

When  the  sunshine  falls  upon  the  soil  a  por- 
tion of  it  is  absorbed,  and  the  molecular  motion 


+  Terms  thus  marked  (doiibli'  dagger)  throughout  the  book  are 
found  in  the  (ilossary. 
*  Scott's  Geology^  p.  29. 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  5 

within  the  soil  is  increased,  producing  a  certain 
amount  of  heat.  This  heat,  when  transmitted 
to  the  air,  causes  it  to  expand  and  thus  become 
lighter,  when  the  cooler  and  heavier  air  rushes 
in  from  the  sides,  forces  it  upward,  and  wind  re- 
sults ;  if  transmitted  to  the  water,  the  increase 
of  the  molecular  motion  of  the  water  overcomes 
the  force  of  cohesion,  and  evaporation  ensues. 

As  the  vapor  rises  it  gradually  becomes  cooled 
and  condensed,  and  clouds  composed  of  minute 
particles  of  water '^"  are  formed;  these  minute 
particles  of  water,  after  further  cooling  and 
condensing,  are  united  by  cohesion  into  drops, 
and  are  drawn  back  to  the  earth  by  the  force 
of  gravity,  in  the  form  of  rain,  snow,  or  hail. 
These  few  examples  may  serve  to  show  how  the 
sun's  energy  is  transformed  into  a  multitude  of 
activities. 

^.—FACTORS  OF  SOIL  FORMATION. 
I.  The  Atmosphere. 

I.  It  Regiclates  the  Temperature. — On  winter 
nights  the  lower  layer  of  air — especially  if  laden 
with  dust  and  moisture — acts  as  a  blanket  in 
checking  radiation  of  heat  from  the  earth's 
surface.  But,  in  the  intense  heat  of  summer, 
this  lower  layer  of  air  would,  through  radiation 


*  "Clouds  formed  at  temperature  above  32°  consist  of  minute 
spherical  drops  of  water  1-4000  to  i-iooo  of  an  inch  in  diameter; 
those  formed  below  32°  consist  of  minute  ice  spicules  which  in- 
crease in  size  and  become  snow." — Davis'  Meteorology,  pp.  159,  160. 


6  AGRICULTURE. 

of  heat  from  the  earth,  become  unbearable  for 
all  living  beings  were  it  not  for  its  currents, 
caused  by  the  expansion  of  the  heated  air  which 
renders  it  lighter  and  causes  it  to  rise,  while  the 
cooler  air  above,  being  heavier,  descends  by  the 
force  of  gravity.* 

2.  Moveinents  of  the  Atmosphere. — It  is  to 
these  movements — due,  primarily,  to  the  coun- 
teraction of  the  sun's  energy  by  the  force  of 
gravity — that  we  owe  the  formation  of  clouds 
and  the  condensation  of  their  moisture  ;  the  dis- 
tribution of  gases  to  act  upon  the  rock  surface, 
or  to  be  consumed  by  living  beings;  the  circu- 
lation of  air  in  the  soil,  so  essential  to  plant  life; 
the  transportation  of  plant  food  and  of  seeds  ; 
and  the  maintenance  of  the  relative  composition 
of  the  whole  atmosphere.  It  is  through  these 
movements  that  the  air  travels  to  the  sea  and 
back  again,  bringing  moisture  for  the  thirsty 
life. 

TJie  winds  play  an  important  part  in  the  for- 
mation of  soil :  {a)  in  the  disintegration  of 
rocks,  by  pelting  them  with  sand  or  rain,  thus 
mechanically  w^earing  them  away  by  friction; 
{b)  by  keeping  them  bare,  so  that  they  are  ex- 
posed to  other  atmospheric  forces  ;  (f)  by  stir- 


*  "  Professor  Langley,  after  a  long  and  careful  experiment 
at  the  base  and  summit  of  Mount  Whitney,  California,  concludes 
that  had  our  earth  no  atmosphere  its  surface  temperature  under 
the  equator  at  noon  would  be  328°  F." — The  Soil,  King,  p.  13. 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  7 

ring  up  the  ocean  into  waves  and  billows,  which 
beat  upon  the  rocks,  carrying  with  them  sand 
and  pebbles,  which  grind  each  other  into  powder. 

On  the  sandy  beach  of  the  ocean  and  of  the 
great  lakes,  and  in  the  great  sandy  plains,  or 
wherever  the  sand  is  loose  and  unprotected  by 
vegetation,  the  wind  becomes  a  potent  factor 
(Figs.  1-2).  Along  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan 
sand-dunes  are  destroying  forests,  and  often 
when  the  forests  have  been  cut  off,  fertile  farms 
are  covered  by  these  great  accumulations  of 
wind-blown  sand.  In  conjunction  with  sand, 
the  wind  builds  or  destroys  islands.  The  loess 
in  China  is  a  deposit  of  wind-blown  soil. 

In  the  desert  of  Sahara  and  in  our  great 
western  plains  great  blinding  storms  of  dust 
and  sand  occur.  The  sand,  too  heavy  to  be  lifted 
more  than  a  few  feet  high,  is  rolled  along  and 
drifted  in  wave-like  mounds,  which  chano-e  their 
shape  and  position  with  the  changes  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind — just  as  the  snow-drifts  are 
formed  in  waves — ^and  the  particles  are  sucked 
up  into  the  whirling  air,  and  redeposited  in  a 
new  place  by  the  force  of  gravity  as  the  motion 
subsides.  One  of  our  "blizzards"  is  a  good  il- 
lustration of  a  sand-storm,  only  the  substance 
transported  by  the  wind  is  snow  instead  of  dust 
and  sand. 

3.  Chemical  Action. — Another  phase  of  atmos- 
pheric work  is  that  of  chemical  action.     Dry  air 


FIC.    I. — WIND-BLOWN     SAND-DKIKTS. 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^HH^HjJP^H^^^ 

.''    -^ 

■y   i^^'  ^•,  ^   :.: 

FIG.    2. — PLANTING   BEACH     GRASS   TO   IIOI.D   THE   SAND  AT 
CAI'K    COD,    MASS. 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  9 

has  little  chemical  effect,  but  moist  air  is  very 
active.  The  oxygen,  which  is  now  known  to 
combine  with  nearly  every  other  element,  seeks 
to  unite  with  the  minerals  of  the  exposed  rocks.* 
Iron,  which  in  some  form  is  contained  by  most 
rocks,  unites  readily  with  oxygen  in  the  presence 
of  moisture,  forming  rust,  which  stains,  softens, 
and  ultimately  causes  the  disintegration  of  the 
rock. 

Carbon  dioxide  (CO2),  though  present  in  a 
comparatively  small  quantity,  is  a  powerful 
agent  both  in  moist  air  and  in  rain-water.  It 
acts  upon  the  rocks,  especially  upon  limestone, 
causing  them  to  crumble  away  or  to  be  entirely 
dissolved. 

Experiment  i. — Before  begintitng  to perfortn  any  experi- 
ment in  this  book,  read  over  the  entire  directions  for  it,  get 
necessary  apparatus  ready,  and  know  what  you  are  going  to 
do  and  why  you  are  going  to  do  it.  Record  your  observations 
at  the  time  they  are  made,  not  after  leaving  the  laboratory. 

Throughout  this  book,  wherever  the  word  "note"  is 
used,  it  means  to  observe  and  record  your  observations  or 
explanations. 

{a)  Break  pieces  of  limestone,  marble,  or  clam-shells 
into  tiny  bits,  and  place  a  small  quantity  in  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle. 

{h)  Pour  in  small  successive  portions  of  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid  (HCl).  Note  what  takes  place  as  the  acid 
comes  in  contact  with  the  stones  or  shells.  Both  the 
hydrochloric  acid  and  the  calcium  carbonate  of  the 
stones  or  shells  are  decomposed,  and  calcium  chloride 


*  Gilbert  and  Brigham,  Physical  Geography,  p.  78. 


10 


agriculturf:. 


(CaClJ,  water  (HjO),and  the  gas  carbon  dioxide  (CO,) 
are  formed. 

{c)  Now  pass  some  of  this  gas,  or  carbon  dioxide,  from 
the  bottle  into  the  solution  of  clear  lime-water  (Fig.  3). 

(d)  To  prepare  lime-water,  dissolve  common  lime  in 
pure  water,  let  stand  until  clear,  and  carefully  pour  off 
the  liquid,  or  pass  it  through  a  filter-paper.  J  What 
takes  place  when  the  carbon  dioxide  passes  into  the 
lime  water?  Allow  the  gas  to  continue  to  pass,  and 
note  the  result. 

(e)  Boil  the  liquid,  and  again  note  result. 

(/)  Write  up  this  experiment,  stating  the  materials 
used,  observations  made,  and  what  the  experiment 
teaches,  together  with  any  further  remarks  or  conclu- 
sions you  may  make  concerning  each  step. 

When  the  carbon  dioxide  was  first  passed  into 
the  lime-water,  a  precipitate  of  calcium  carbon- 
ate (CaCO,),  or  limestone, 
was  formed. 

It  continued  to  pass 
until  there  was  no  more 
calcium  hydroxide,  or  lime- 
water,  Ca{OH)„  to  com- 
bine with  it,  when  the 
carbon  dioxide  united  with 
the  water  (H,0)  to  form 
carbonic  acid  (H_,COj). 
This  acid  at  once  acted 
upon  the  precipitate  of  calcium  carbonate,  form- 
ing a  soluble  bicarbonate  of  calcium,  HXa 
(COj)^.  which  is  dissolved,  and  the  liquid  be- 
comes   clear.      The  boiling  drives  out   part   of 


FIG.   3. — APPARATUS   FOR 
EXTKRIMENT     I. 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  H 

the  carbon  dioxide,  and  the  calcium  carbonate 
is  again  precipitated. 

Other  substances  of  the  air  which  bear  impor- 
tant relations  to  agriculture  are  nitrogen  and  its 
compounds,  ammonia,  nitrous  and  nitric  acids, 
and  ozone. 

4.  Alternations  of  Heat  and  Cold. — In  dry, 
hot  countries,  rocks  become  excessively  heated 
during  the  day  and  rapidly  cooled  at  night.  As 
the  outer  layer  cools  it  contracts  upon  the  hot 
and  expanded  interior,  which  tends  to  produce 
snapping  and  crumbling  of  the  brittle  min- 
erals. 

Thus  we  see  the  wo7^k  of  the  atmosphere  is 
constant ;  it  is  universal  ;  it  is  not,  however, 
uniform.*  Both  the  rapidity  and  the  extent  of 
disintegration  are  dependent  upon  the  differ- 
ences of  climate  in  various  latitudes  and  alti- 
tudes, the  differences  in  the  rock  substances 
themselves,  the  differences  of  seasons  and  of 
the  amount  of  precipitation,  and  upon  the  pres- 
ence or  lack  of  protection  from  vegetation  or 
soil. 


*  The  composition  of  the  air  varies  greatly  in  different  locali- 
ties, or  under  different  conditions  in  the  same  localities;  but, 
under  ordinary  conditions,  its  constituents  in  a  given  volume  are, 
approximately:  oxygen,  20.6  per  cent.;  nitrogen,  77.18  per  cent. ; 
water  vapor,  1.4  per  cent.;  carbon  dioxide,  .04  per  cent.;  argon, 
.78  per  cent.  The  water  vapor  and  carbon  dioxide  are  the  most 
variable.  And  there  is  present  a  variable  quantity  of  ammonia, 
nitrous  and  nitric  acids — a  very  small  fraction  of  i  per  cent,  alto- 
gether. 


12  AGRICULTURE. 

II.  Water. 

Among  the  factors  of  soil  formation  none  is 
greater  than  that  of  water  in  its  various  phases 
— as,  rain,  rill,  river,  lake,  and  sea  ;  frost,  ice, 
avalanche,  and  glacier. 

I.  Chemical  Action. — In  many  of  its  forms 
water  exerts  a  violent  and  stupendous  force, 
but  there  is  a  silent  and  subtle  force  whose  re- 
sults are  often  overlooked.  It  is  the  Qfreat  sol- 
vent  power  of  water.  It  absorbs  both  oxygen 
and  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air,  and  these  give 
it  great  chemical  power  in  dissolving,  or  de- 
composing, rock  substances.*  The  simplest 
effects  are  the  uniting  of  oxygen  and  of  water 
with  the  minerals  composing  the  rocks.  But 
as  the  rain  sinks  into  the  ground  it  is  provided 
with  new  weapons  through  the  absorption  of 
the  humic  acids  and,  possibly,  of  alkaline  sub- 
stances. For  this  reason,  many  rocks  disinte- 
grate more  rapidly  under  ground  than  they  do 
when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 

Calcium  carbonate,  or  limestone,  is  the  sub- 
stance dissolved  or  decomposed  in  the  greatest 
quantity  ;  but  magnesium  carbonate  (MgCOj), 
organic  matter,  silica  (SiO,),  and  many  other 
substances  are  held  in  solution  by  clear  river 
water.     (See  "  P^ield  Exercise  No.  i,"  Part  2.) 


*  "  Perfectly    pure    water   has    very  little  effect,  but  perfectly 
pure  water  does  not  exist  in  nature." — Scott's  Geology. 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  13 

The  amount  of  these  dissolved  materials — 
though  far  less  than  that  produced  by  mechan- 
ical action — is  astonishing.  That  carried  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  the  Mississippi  River  an- 
nually reaches  over  112,000,000  tons — not  all 
derived  from  the  river-bed,  but  taken  up  by  the 
water  from  the  time  it  falls  in  rain  till  it  reaches 
the  sea,  whether  it  flows  through  the  river  and 
its  branches,  or  whether  it  comes  from  springs 
or  other  undergfround  sources. 

2.  MecJiaiiical A ciion. — The  mechanical  action 
of  water  is  threefold.  ([)  It  disintegrates.  (2) 
It  transports.     {3)    It  assorts. 

The  mechanical  action  of  rain  is  due  to  the 
friction  produced  by  the  drops  in  striking  the 
rocks,  and  by  the  abrasion  of  solid  particles  as 
they  are  carried  to  lower  levels.  It  forms  into 
little  rills  and  gullies,  washing  out  and  carrying 
with  it  as  it  goes  all  the  loose  material  which  it 
can  hold  in  suspension  (Fig.  8).  The  amount 
thus  obtained  depends  partly  upon  the  solubil- 
ity of  the  rock  over  which  it  flows  (though 
even  a  granite  would  be  slightly  dissolved  by 
ordinary  rain-water),  and  partly  upon  the  vio- 
lence of  the  precipitation,  and  the  volume  and 
velocity  of  the  stream. 

The  velocity  is  affected  by  several  influences, 
but  the  greatest  of  them  is  the  constant,  never- 
failing  action  of  (gravity.  Hence,  the  steeper 
the   descent   the    greater   the    velocity.       The 


U  AGRICULTURE. 

power  is  supplied  by  the  volume  and  velocity  of 
the  stream,  but  the  woi^k  of  abrasion  is  per- 
formed, for  the  most  part,  by  the  sand,  pebbles, 
and  rock  fragments  as  they  are  rolled  along. 
They  cut  down  into  the  river-bed,  wearing  it 
deeper;  they  polish  each  other  into  rounded  or 
flattened  shapes,  or  grind  each  other  into  pow- 
der in  their  mad  rush  to  the  sea. 

The  transporting  poiuer  of  running  water 
varies  as  the  sixth  power  of  its  velocity,  so  that 
if  its  velocity  be  doubled  it  can  carry  sixty-four 
times  as  much  solid  matter  as  before.  Thus  it 
is  that  a  slight  increase  in  the  velocity  will 
greatly  increase  the  load  of  a  stream  if  the  ma- 
terials are  obtainable,  while  the  slightest  de- 
crease in  the  velocity  will  cause  a  part  of  the 
load  to  be  deposited.  These  river  deposits  are 
commonly  in  sheets  or  bars,  but  when  the  river 
suddenly  enters  a  plain  at  the  foot  of  a  steep 
slope  an  alluvial  fan  is  formed  by  the  deposition 
of  the  sediment. 

According  to  the  calculations  of  the  United 
States  government  made  many  years  ago,  the 
Mississippi  River  transports  to  the  gulf  every 
year  enough  solid  substance  to  make  a  column 
one  mile  square  and  268  feet  high — 200,000,000 
tons. 

The  student  can  find  no  bettc^r  example  of 
the  carrying  power  of  water  than  that  of  the 
roadside  rills  and  gullies  after  a  heavy  rain. 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  15 

Experiment  2. — (a)  Weigh  a  glass  fruit  jar,  and  col- 
lect in  it  the  clouded  or  muddy  water — from  a  gully  or 
stream,  after  a  rain — and  allow  it  to  stand  until  clear. 

[d)  Weigh  again;  then  carefully  pour  off  the  water, 
and  weigh  the  sediment  remaining  in  the  jar. 

(c)  Calculate  the  per  cent,  of  sediment. 

(i)  Rivers.— When  rivers  overflow  their 
banks  the  water  loses  its  velocity,  and  a  layer 
of  sediment  is  deposited  on  either  side  of  the 
stream.  In  the  great  rivers  these  flood-plains 
are  broad  fertile  tracts  of  land  very  valuable  for 
agriculture.  Those  of  the  Mississippi  are  many 
miles  in  width,  but  have  to  be  protected  by 
levees  from  the  overflowing  of  the  river. 

Where  the  river  empties  into  the  quiet  waters 
of  a  lake  or  sea  the  velocity  is  checked  and  the 
stream  deposits  its  load.  As  the  stream  slack- 
ens the  heavier  particles  are  dropped  first,  and 
so  on,  until  in  the  quiet  waters  only  the  finest 
silt  is  carried.  Hence  it  is  that,  on  lake  or  sea- 
shore, we  find  the  coarser  materials  thrown  down 
first,  and  farther  out  the  finer  sands  (Fig.  4). 
There  is  usually  a  pause  after  such  deposition 
is  made  until  a  fresh  supply  of  sediment  is  ob- 
tained. This  allows  the  surface  to  assume  a 
somewhat  different  arrangement.  This  surface 
forms  the  plane  of  contact  for  the  next  layer, 
and  is  called  the  "stratification  plane." 

ExPERniENT  3. — The  assorting  power  of  water  may  be 
illustrated  by  (a)  placing  a  mixture  of  rock  material  of 


IG 


AGRICULTURE. 


various  sizes — pebbles,  sand,  clay,  and  vegetable  mould — 
in  a  candy-jar,  and  nearly  filling  the  jar  with  water. 

{b)  Now  thoroughly  stir  the  mixture,  and  allow  it  to 
stand  until  the  water  clarifies. 

{c)  Observe  the  arrangement  of  the  sediment.  Where 
are  the  largest  pebbles  found  ?     Where  the  finest  clay  ? 

Of  course  the  change  here  will  be  gradual,  and 


KIG.    4 — DEPOSITION   OF   MATERIAL   UPON   SLACKING   OF   STREAM 

the  layers  will  not  be  so  distinct,  as  there  was 
no  time  for  the  formation  of  the  stratification]}; 
plane  between  the  depositions  of  different  kinds 
of  sediment. 

(2)  Underground  Streams. — Part  of  the 
water  after  a  rain  sinks  into  the  ground.  The 
natural  breaks  in  the  rock  serve  as  channels 
which   it   may   enlarge   if  the   rock  be  soluble. 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  17 

These  underground  streams  perform  various 
kinds  of  work,  such  as  weakening  rocks,  dissolv- 
ing minerals,  carving  channels,  rising  in  springs 
or  in  artesian  wells,  bringing  mineral  matter  to 
the  surface,  and  forming  caves  and  making 
peculiar  deposits  in  them. 

(3)  Landslides  are  caused  by  the  undermin- 
ing of  masses  of  rock  and  soil  by  water,  which 
produces  a  slippery  surface  of  bed-rock,  and 
makes  it  easy  for  gravity  to  move  an  enormous 
quantity  of  soil  or  rock  down  the  declivity. 

(4)  Lakes  differ  from  oceans  in  being  (usu- 
ally) above  the  sea-level;  in  size;  and  in  the 
freshness  of  their  waters,  provided  they  have  an 
outlet.  Their  chief  movements  are  luaves  pro- 
duced by  luinds.  These  waves  often  erode  the 
shore.  They  carry  with  them  and  distribute 
over  the  bottom  of  the  lake  the  sediment 
brought  by  the  rivers,  thus  making  stratified 
rock. 

(5)  The  OCEAN,  with  its  waves,  tides,  and  cur- 
rents, which  constantly  beat  upon  the  shore, 
plays  an  important  role  in  this  great  drama.  As 
we  have  seen,  the  material  transported  by  the 
rivers  may  form  deltas  and  bars,  or  be  widely 
distributed,  according  to  the  strength  of  the 
tides  and  the  power  of  the  currents  along  the 
shore. 

More  than  one-half  of  the  rocks  have  been 
laid  down   in  the  sea  and  then  raised  above  it. 


38  AGRICULTURE. 

These  deposits  were  not  made  out  in  the  open 
sea,  but  near  the  shore  in  shallow  water.  Their 
thickness  is  accounted  for  by  the  theory  that 
the  ocean  bottom  was  sinking  gradually,  and 
fresh  deposits  were  made  above  the  preceding 
ones. 

In  the  open  sea  are  found  the  deposits  of 
very  fine  particles  carried  out  by  the  rivers — on 
the  continental  slopes  from  the  one  hundred 
fathom  line  to  the  oceanic  abysses — and  they 
are  known  under  the  indefinite  term  of  "mud." 
There  are  also  volcanic  deposits  and  great  accu- 
mulations  of  organic  remains.  Every  animal  in 
the  sea  which  has  a  shell  or  hard  skeleton  helps 
to  make  these  deposits,  but  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  them  is  made  up  of  the  shells  of  minute 
organisms*  which  live  near  the  surface.  The 
diatom  ooze  is  composed  of  the  siliceous  re- 
mains of  microscopic  plants. 

(6)  Frost. — Frozen  water  has  done  a  great 
share  of  the  work  in  this  process  of  mantling 
the  earth  with  loose  material.  Some  rocks  are 
more  porous  than  others,  though  those  appar- 
ently solid  will,  upon  examination,  be  found  to 
be  crossed  by  joints  which  divide  them  into 
blocks.  These  are  filled  with  minute  crevices 
and  pores,  through  which  the  water  percolates 
even  to  the  very  center.     Water,  upon  passing 

*  Jordan  and   Kellogg's  Animal  Lift-,   p.    18.       Scott's  Giology,  \ 

pp.  176-180. 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  19 

into  a  solid  state,  expands  about  one-eleventh  of 
its  original  bulk.  This  expansion  exerts  an  ir- 
resistible force,  as  is  seen  in  the  bursting  of 
iron  pipes,  the  cracking  of  the  rocks  into  blocks, 
or  shattering  them  into  fragments,  thus  increas- 
ing their  exposed  surfaces  many-fold,  and  ex- 
posing them  to  the  action  of  other  forces. 

Exercise  i. — Let  the  student  calculate  the  area  of 
the  exposed  surface  of  a  cubic  foot  of  rock  (a)  before, 
and  (^)  after  it  has  been  broken  up  into  cubic  inches. 
(c)  Compare  a  and  />. 

Another  effect  of  the  freezing  of  rock  is  to 
cause  the  fragments  to  "  rise  slightly  at  right 
angles  to  the  inclined  surface,  and  each  thawing 
produces  the  reverse  movement  "  '"''  under  the 
influence  of  gravity.  Consequently,  they  slowly 
"creep"  down  the  declivity  (Fig.  5). 

(7)  Ice. — The  ice  of  a  stream  expands  with 
great  force,  pushing  against  the  bank.  It  holds 
in  its  mighty  grasp  all  loose  stones,  boulders, 
and  trees  along  the  banks,  and  when  it  breaks 
up  transports  them  to  great  distances. 

If  the  student  has  an  opportunity,  let  him 
watch  the  breaking  up  the  ice  in  a  river,  or  even 
in  a  smaller  stream,  and  see  with  what  wonder- 
ful force  the  great  blocks  of  ice  with  their  bur- 
dens are  crushing  each  other  to  pieces  in  the 
fury  of  a  spring  torrent.  Iron  bridges  are  often 
swept  away  by  the  enormous  pressure. 

*  Scott's  Geology,  p.  82. 


20  AGRICULTURE. 

(8)  Snowslides. — On  the  mountain  sides 
great  masses  of  snow  which  have  accumulated 
through  the  winter  become  loosened  by  water, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  landslide,  and  are  drawn 
down  the  slope  with  great  momentum,  carrying 


FIG.   5. — SHALES    "CREEPING"    UNDER   THE   ACTION   OF 
KROST.      {v.  S.  G.   S.) 

boulders,    vegetation,    everything    within    their 
path,  and  literally  scraping  the  solid  rock  bare. 
(9)   Glaciers.^ — It  is  now  well  established  that 
in   both   North   America    and   Europe   glaciers, 
or  great  sheets  of  moving  ice,   existed   in  com- 


KS 


FIG.  6. — FORMATION    OF    GLACIERS.       (u.   S.  G.   S.) 


21 


22  AGRICULTURE. 

paratively  recent  geological  times;  indeed,  they 
are  found  to-day,  though  in  much  less  size  and 
number  than  formerly. 

The  causes  of  the  climatic  changes  which  led 
to  the  formation  and  again  to  the  disappearance 
of  the  glaciers  are  unknown.  At  the  time  of 
the  great  expansion  these  ice  sheets  covered 
nearly  all  of  North  America  down  to  40*^  north 
latitude. 

Wherever,  in  high  latititudes  or  altitudes, 
more  snow  falls  in  winter  than  melts  in  summer, 
glaciers  are  formed  (Fig.  6).  These  glaciers 
carry  with  them  (i)  upon  their  surfaces,  (2) 
frozen  in  their  interior,  and  (3)  pushed  along 
in  front  or  beneath  them,  great  quantities 
of  rock  of  all  degrees  of  coarseness,  from  the 
gigantic  boulders  weighing  tons  to  the  finest 
clay.  Rocks  over  which  they  pass  are  striated 
and  polished  (Fig.  7),  and  both  these  and  the 
materials  carried  may  be  ground  into  clay  by 
the  enormous  pressure  of  the  slowly  moving 
mass.  The  drift,  or  this  deposit,  is  distributed 
over  vast  tracts,  and  is  stratified  or  unstratified. 
The  stratified  drift  is  deposited  by  the  water  of 
glacial  streams,  while  the  unstratified  is  simply 
dropped  by  the  melting  ice. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  great  tracts  of 
glacial  ice :  {a)  the  Alpine,  occupying  narrow 
mountain  valleys,  as  those  of  the  Alps  ;  (3)  the 
Piedmont  glacier,  like  the  Malaspina,  of  Alaska 


FIG.  7. — ACTION   OF   GLACIER   DRIFTS.      (U.  S.  G.   S.) 


28 


24  AGRICULTURE. 

— lakes  of  ice  formed  by  the  union  of  many  val- 
ley glaciers — which  occupies  an  area  of  thirty  by 
seventy  miles,  and  which  is  covered  along  its 
southern  border  with  morainic  soil  and  great 
forests  ;  and  (c)  continental  glaciers,  covering 
vast  tracts,  comprising  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
miles,  like  those  in  Greenland  and  the  antarctic 
land. 

(lo)  Icebergs. — When  glaciers  enter  the  sea 
fragments  are  broken  off  by  the  tide — some  of 
them  hundreds  of  feet  in  depth  and  more  than 
a  mile  in  diameter^ — and  float  thousands  of  miles 
before  they  melt  and  deposit  immense  quantities 
of  rock. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  disintegration  and 
transportation  of  the  loose  material  of  the  earth's 
surface  by  the  various  forms  of  water  z'ary 
greatly  under  varying  conditions. 

The  chemical  action  is  more  rapid  in  warm, 
moist  countries  where  vegetation  is  abundant, 
while  the  great  variations  of  heat  and  cold  in 
the  temperate  regions,  and  the  powerful  frosts 
in  the  arctic,  render  mechanical  action  more  po- 
tent and  swift. 

Again,  this  work  differs  in  its  usefulness  to  the 
agriculturist.  Sometimes  a  mantle  of  loose, 
workable  material  is  deposited  where  a  short 
time  before  the  solid  rock  reached  the  surface, 
or  great  quantities  ol  organic  matter  may  be 
deposited   which  decay  and   enrich  hitherto  un- 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  25 

productive  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  the  hills, 
if  unprotected  by  forest  (Fig.  8),  may  be  liter- 
ally washed  away  by  rain  and  gully,  rivulet  and 
stream,  until  fertile  farms  are  transformed  into 
sandy  wastes. 

Field  Exercise  No.  i.* 

Part  i.  Work  of  Atmosphere. — {a)  Note  any  rocks 
worn  away  by  the  friction  of  rain  or  sand  through  the 
action  of  wind.  Note  any  rocks  kept  exposed  to  other 
atmospheric  agencies  through  tlie  action  of  wind  ;  note 
any  wind-blown  soil;  any  wind-blown  water;  vapor. 

{b')  Note  any  evidences  of  chemical  action;  oxidation, 
hydration,  action  of  carbon  dioxide;  "  rotten  rock." 
Draw  a  diagram  showing  successive  stages  of  disinte- 
gration from  solid  rock  to  soil.  (This  diagram  is  to 
represent  such  a  section  actually  observed  in  the  day's 
excursion.) 

{c)  Note  effects  of  changes  of  temperature — that  is, 
alternations  of  heat  and  cold — upon  rocks. 

Part  2.  Work  of  Water.  — (a)  Note  evidences  of  its 
solvent  power.  Fill  a  small  bottle  with  clear  water  from 
a  spring  or  brook,  and  when  you  return  to  the  labora- 
tory evaporate  a  few  drops  of  it  to  dryness  on  a  piece 
of  glass  or  in  a  test-tube,  and  see  if  there  is  any  residue; 
explain. 

{b)  Disintegrating  Power  of  Water. — Note   evidences 


*  This  outline  is  meant  to  be  only  suggestive  of  what  may  be 
actually  seen  in  a  field  trip  along  almost  any  stream  in  the 
north  Mississippi  valley.  Many  of  the  points  mentioned  will  ap- 
ply to  any  locality  of  the  United  States;  some  will  not.  Neither 
will  this  outline  include  «// that  will  be  found  in  any  excursion. 
The  student  will  simply  omit  any  points  mentioned  which  he  does 
not  actually  find,  and  insert  under  the  proper  headings  any  others 
found. 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  27 

of  the  washing  out  of  loose  material,  and  of  the  cutting 
power  of  water;  of  the  abrasion  performed  by  gravel, 
pebbles,  and  stones. 

(c)  Transportation  Power  of  Water. — Why  is  one 
stream  clear  and  another  muddy?  Note  any  sand  or 
soil  dropped  by  water. 

(d)  Note  evidences  of  assorting  power  of  water. 
Draw  a  section  of  the  bank  of  a  stream,  showing  strati- 
fication. 

((?)  Note  evidences  of  underground  streams,  of  land- 
slides, and  describe  and  explain. 

(/)  Frozen  Water. — Note  work  of  frost,  ice,  glacier, 
and  snowslides. 

III.  Organic  Life. 

Everywhere  myriads  of  living  forms  abound 
— in  the  air,  in  the  water,  on  the  land,  and  in 
the  soil.  However,  there  must  have  been  a 
time  when  life  did  not  exist  upon  the  earth.  It 
must  have  begun  in  a  very  humble  manner,  be- 
cause the  early  conditions  were  such  that  com- 
plex organisms  could  not  exist. 

It  is  believed  by  both  geologists  and  embry- 
ologists  that  from  these  simple  beings  have 
evolved  in  succession,  through  vast  ages  of 
time,  all  the  higher  and  more  complicated 
forms. 

With  the  advent  of  life  arose  a  new  and 
mighty  potency  in  the  work  of  soil  formation, 
and  this  force  becomes  the  greater  as  life  be- 
comes more  varied  and  complex. 

I.  Plant  Life. — The    fact    that    plants    have 


28  AGRICULTURE. 

been  from  very  early  geological  times,  and  still 
are,  a  powerful,  though  silent,  factor  in  the  pro- 
cesses of  rock  disintegration  and  soil  formation 
is  too  often  overlooked  or  underestimated. 

(i)  Mechanical  or  Physical  Effects. — 
Generally,  wherever  rock  has  been  acted  upon 
by  the  processes  of  weathering,  vegetation 
creeps  in.  It  may  be  some  very  low  form,  as 
fungus,  moss,  or  lichen,  but  it  sends  its  tiny 
root-like  extensions  into  the  crevices  of  the  rock 
and  forces  apart  its  particles. 

In  the  higher  forms  of  vegetation,  where  the 
roots  are  strong  and  woody,  this  becomes  an 
important  feature  (Fig.  9).  Huge  boulders  are 
burst  asunder  by  the  root-pressure  of  some  giant 
tree;  through  innumerable  rocky  crevices  larger 
or  smaller  root  systems  are  finding  their  way, 
opening  up  the  solid  rock,  and  rendering  it  sus- 
ceptible to  other  disintegrating  forces  (Fig.  9). 
In  this  same  way  myriads  of  grass  roots  and 
roots  of  herbs  and  forest  trees  are  pulverizing 
the  solid  material  of  the  soil. 

While  plants  absorb  water  from  the  soil,  at 
the  same  time,  where  vegetation  is  at  all  dense, 
they  shield  the  earth's  surface  from  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  so  effectively  as  to  retard  evapo- 
ration. This  retained  moisture  exerts  a  solvent 
power  upon  the  rock  substances. 

Grasses,  or  other  plants  having  thick,  matted 
roots,  prove  a  great  protection  from  the  mechan- 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS. 


29 


ical  removal  of  the  soil  (Fig.  lo)  by  heavy  rains 
or  wind.  Dense  forests  serve  as  windbreaks,  and 
soil  blown  by  the  wind  is  lodged  and  prevented 
from  further  transportation  by  the  trees.     These 


FIG.    9. — ROOTS    OF    FOREST    TREES    OPENING    A    ROCKY    SL'HSOIL. 

forests,  with  their  masses  of  roots  and  decayed 
leaves,  also  serve  as  a  blanket  in  protecting  from 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

Masses  of  seaweed  act  as  l^arriers  to  the  surf, 
and  the  aerial  roots   of  mangrove  trees  along 


30 


AGRICULTURE. 


tropical  coasts  break  the  force  of  the  waves, 
so  that  they  cannot  wash  away  the  mud  and 
sand. 

(2)  Chemical  Effects. —  The  roots  of  living 
plants,  from  their  acid  secretion,  effect  a  chem- 
ical action   upon  the  insoluble  substances  with 


FIG.     10. — VEGETATION    PROTECTING    THE    SOIL. 


which  they  come  in  contact,  rendering  them  sol- 
uble, and  absorbing  into  themselves  large  quan- 
tities of  certain  compounds  as  plant  food,  thus 
depriving  the  soil  of  this  material.  That  this 
acid  secretion  actually  corrodes  or  dissolves  rock 
material  was  proven  by  Sachs  through  actual 
experiment,  which  any  one  may  also  prove  for 
himself.  By  the  decomposition  of  vegetation 
humic  acids  are  formed,  which  have  the  pow^er 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  31 

of  dissolving  many  minerals  not  soluble  in  rain- 
water. 

Since  plants  can  derive  their  food  from  much 
simpler  elements  than  can  animals,  many  scien- 
tists believe  that  the  first  forms  of  life  were 
those  of  a  very  low  type  of  vegetation.  The 
only  organisms  which  could  exist  upon  a  bare 
rock  must  be  those  which  could  subsist  upon  a 
purely  mineral  food  obtained  from  the  rock 
itself,  and  from  the  water  and  gases  of  the  at- 
mosphere. It  has  been  discovered  that  even  the 
denuded  rocks  of  very  high  mountains  are  cov- 
ered by  a  layer  of  organic  matter,  evidently 
formed  by  microscopic  vegetation.  These  micro- 
organisms have  even  been  discovered  at  con- 
siderable  distance  in  the  interior  of  these  rocks. 
They  begin  the  formation  of  humus,;];  and  make 
it  possible  for  other  low  forms  of  plant  life  to 
creep  in,  which,  in  turn,  help  to  prepare  the  soil 
for  the  sustenance  of  chlorophyll-bearing,  or 
green,  plants. 

Bacteria. — The  micro-organisms  which  are 
of  most  importance  to  agriculture  are  the  bac- 
teria which  (i)  oxidize  nitrogenous  substances, 
thereby  forming  nitric  acid,  and  (2)  those  which 
reduce  nitric  acid  to  ammonia  or  to  free  ni- 
trogen. 

In  the  processes  of  nitrification,  ammonia  is 
one  of  the  first  products  formed  from  ferment- 
ing organic  matter  by  one  species  of  bacteria. 


32  AGRICULTURE. 

The  ammonia  (NH3)  is  oxidized  to  nitrous  acid 
(HNO2)  by  another  species;  this  in  turn  is 
changed  into  nitric  acid  (HNO3)  by  still  another 
species.  In  a  similar  manner  the  opposite  pro- 
cess of  denitrijication  goes  on.  First,  the  nitric 
acid  is  reduced  to  nitrous  acid,  this  to  ammonia, 
and  then  to  free  nitrogen,  each  step  being  per- 
formed, respectively,  by  a  distinct  species  of 
bacteria. 

Both  of  these  processes  may  take  place  in  the 
soil,  their  extent  depending  largely  upon  the 
oxygen  supply.  In  a  well-aerated  soil  nitrifica- 
tion takes  place,  while  in  an  undrained,  poorly 
ventilated  soil  denitrification  occurs. 

It  has  been  proven  by  modern  science  that 
the  nitrifying  organism  of  the  soil  is  able  to  sub- 
sist in  a  purely  mineral  environment.  Now 
certain  bacteria,  or  soil  ferments,  are  found  in 
great  numbers  about  plant  rootlets — in  fact,  liv- 
ing in  mutual  relationship  with  them.  It  is, 
therefore,  thought  probable  that  the  action  of 
bacteria  has  an  effect  upon  the  mineral  particles 
of  the  soil  which  renders  them  solvent  and  pre- 
pares them  for  absorption  by  plants  as  food.* 
(Year-book,  1895.) 

Although    these    bacteria    can    subsist    upon 


*  The  value  of  leguminous  plants  for  worn  out  or  poor  soils 
has  long  been  realized,  but  not  until  i8SS,  when  Helriegel  pub- 
lished the  results  of  his  investigations,  was  the  real  source  of 
their  fertilizing  power  known. 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  33 

minerals,  they  are  far  more  flourishing  in  the 
presence  of  decaying  organic  matter.  Indeed, 
their  action  is  believed" to  hasten  the  decompo- 
sition of  organic  material.  So  it  is  that  the 
plant,  by  its  own  decomposition,  is  through 
these  agencies  made  to  contribute  to  the  forma- 
tion of  humus,  which  is  an  essential  part  of  true 
soil. 

(3)  Vegetable  Accumulations  or  Deposits. 
— Not  only  living  plants  exert  an  infljiience 
upon  the  soil,  but  when  they,  die  their  remains 
form,  though  very  slowly  to  be  sure,  accumula- 
tions of  vegetable  matter. 

(^)  True  soil. — Vegetable  accumulation  is 
most  important  as  well  as  most  conspicuous  as 
a  mantle  of  true  soil,  formed  from  the  decayed 
vegetation  in  the  forests  or  grass  -  covered 
prairies. 

(<5)  Wherever  vegetation  slowly  undergoes 
decomposition  under  water  carbonaceous  accti- 
mulations  are  formed.  The  further  decompo- 
sition proceeds  the  greater  the  per  cent,  of  car- 
bon ;  thus  results  peat,  lignite,  bituminous,  or 
anthracite  coal,  according  to  the  stage  of  de- 
composition reached. 

{c)  In  fresh-water  lakes  and  ponds,  as  well  as 
in  the  sea,  the  siliceous  cases  of  microscopic 
plants  known  as  diatoms  form  considerable  ac- 
cumulations. 

I.  Animal  Life. — Animals    have    a  twofold 


34  AGRICULTURE. 

geological  effect:  (i)  that  of  disintegration,  and 
(2)  that  of  accumulation. 

(i)  Disintegration. — In  the  sea  even  the 
hardest  rocks  are  made  to  crumble  by  marine 
animals  boring  into  them.  In  like  manner 
many  animals  burrow  and  bore  through  the  soil. 

Th.G.  prairie  dog  oi  the  western  United  States 
digs  a  deep  burrow  in  the  earth,  and  casts  up 
a  mound  at  its  entrance.  There  are  whole  vil- 
lages of  these  mounds,  which  in  some  localities 
cover  many  acres.  Muskrats,  crayfish,  moles, 
woodchucks,  and  gophers  in  countless  numbers 
are  performing  similar  operations. 

Ants,  especially  in  tropical  countries,  bring 
up  sand  grains  from  their  underground  tunnels, 
and  form  multitudes  of  ant-hills  sometimes  afoot 
or  more  in  hight.  Myriads  of  other  insects, 
or  their  larva;,  pulverize  the  soil  particles  or 
enrich  them  with  their  excreta  and  decajed 
bodies. 

But  the  most  important  of  these  animal 
agencies  in  stirring  up,  pulverizing,  mixing,  and 
ventilating  the  soil  is  that  of  the  common  earth- 
worm. Darwin,  in  his  investigations  upon  the 
earthworm,  estimated  that  in  many  parts  of 
England  "more  than  ten  tons  of  earth  annually 
pass  through  their  bodies  and  is  brought  to  the 
surface  on  each  acre  of  land."  In  this  way  the 
v;hole  superficial  bed  of  soil  would  pass  through 
their  bodies  in  a  few  years,     '1  he  specific  action 


NATURE  AND  FORMATION  OF  SOILS.  35 

of  earthworms  has  both  a  mechanical  and  a 
chemical  effect.  The  burrows  may  extend  sev- 
eral feet  under  ground,  and  are  connected  with 
each  other  by  underground  tunnels,  so  that  the 
soil  is  thoroughly  exposed  to  the  chemical  action 
of  gases  and  acids  of  the  air  and  water.  The 
muscular  gizzard  grinds  the  stony  particles  swal- 
lowed by  the  worm,  making  them  finer  and 
more  succeptible  to  the  humic  acids,  the  gener- 
ation of  which  is  probably  hastened  during  the 
digestion  of  the  vegetable  mould  and  half- 
decayed  leaves,  upon  which  the  worm  feeds. 

(2)  Animal  Accumulations.  —  Calcareous 
Deposits. — "  The  sea  is  constantly  receiving 
from  the  land  materials  in  solution,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  carbonate  and  sul- 
phate of  lime.  Many  classes  of  marine  animals 
extract  the  calcium  carbonate  (CaCOj)  from  the 
sea-water  and  form  it  into  hard  parts,  either  as 
external  shells  and  tests  or  as  internal  skeletons. 
There  is  also  good  reason  to  believe  that  some, 
at  least,  of  these  organisms  are  able  to  convert 
the  sulphate  into  the  carbonate,"  In  shallow 
seas,  where  the  conditions  of  warmth  and  food- 
supply  are  favorable,  animal  accumulations  are 
developed  on  a  large  scale.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  these  accumulations  are  those  of  the 
corals,*  echinoderms,  and  mollusks. 


Scott's  Geology,  pp.  165-170= 


36  AGRICULTURE. 

Many  immense  limestone  beds  were  accu- 
mulated from  the  shells  of  mollusks  and  the 
skeletons,  or  calcareous  plates,  of  starfishes,  sea- 
urchins,  crinoids,  and  all  sorts  of  lime-secreting 
animals.  The  forameniferal  oozes  formed  from 
the  calcareous  shells  of  microscopic,  unicellular 
animals  of  the  deep  sea  have  a  vast  geograph- 
ical extent.* 

Siliceous  Deposits. — The  Radiolaria  are  a 
group  of  microscopic  animals  which  make  sili- 
ceous secretions  instead  of  calcareous  ones. 

Phosphate  Deposits. — These  are  terrestial  for- 
mations derived  principally  from  guano,  which 
is  composed  of  the  excrement,  bones,  and  re- 
mains of  birds  (or  in  caves,  bats).  They  are 
found  in  rainless  regions,  like  Peru  and  its 
islands.  When  the  guano  is  deposited  over 
limestone  it  gradually  changes  the  limestone 
from  a  carbonate  to  a  phosphate  of  lime. 

3.  Environmental  Changes. — Beavers  build 
dams  across  streams,  and  sometimes  flood  many 
acres  of  lowland.  By  felling  trees  they  inter- 
rupt the  drainage,  thus  forming  marshes  favor- 
ing the  formation  of  peat  beds. 

Man  also  may  change  natural  conditions, 
either  purposely  or  incidentally,  by  planting  or 
destroying  trees,  thus  causing  the  protection 
(Fig.    11)  or  denudation   of  hillside  slopes;  by 


*  Jordan  and  Kellogg's  Aniimil  Life,  p.  iS. 


Z   "O 


o    P 


38  AGRICULTURE. 

plowing  and  harrowing,  thereby  exposing  the 
soil  to  the  action  of  the  wind  and  rain  ;  by  bor- 
ing wells,  and  excavating  mines  and  quarries  ; 
by  controlling  or  directing  the  water  of  rivers 
and  streams,  and  by  irrigating  dry  or  desert 
regions  (Fig.  12),  thus  changing  the  natural 
environment    very    greatly    if    not    altogether 

(Fig-  13)- 

4.  Field  Exercise  No.  2. — A  Study  of  Organic.!^ife  as  a 
Factor  in  Soil  Formation. 

Part  i.  Mechanical  Action. — {a)  Note  the  disinte- 
grating processes  of  plant  life.  Pull  off  the  moss,  or 
lichens,  growing  upon  a  solid  rock,  and  see  how  far  be- 
neath the  surface  the  root-like  extensions  have  crept. 
Measure  and  calculate  the  length  of  some  great  root- 
system  which  is  exposed  along  the  bank  of  a  stream,  or 
find  rocks  burst  asunder  by  root  action  ;  note  examples 
of  retarded  evaporation. 

{b)  Note  the  protection  of  soil  by  plants. 

{c)  Note  vegetable  accumulations.  In  the  woods, 
notice  the  formation  of  humus  from  the  decayed  leaves, 
twigs,  and  bark,  and  contrast  the  soil  with  that  in  the 
meadows,  roads,  and  lawns.  Account  for  these  varia- 
tions, and  discuss  all  factors  concerned,  as  sunlight,  air 
currents,  depth  of  feeding  roots,  and  kinds  of  material 
obtained  by  them  at  the  different  strata.  What  is  the 
relative  value  of  the  soil  from  each  place  ?  Take  a  sam- 
ple of  each  of  these  soils  back  to  the  laboratory,  and  try 
to  grow  a  plant  of  the  same  kind  and  size  in  each  soil, 
and  record  and  compare  your  results. 

P.\R'r  2.  Work  of  Disintegrating^  and  Pulverizing  the 
Soil. — (a)  Describe  the  work  of  as  many  different  kinds 
of  animals  as  it  is  possible  to  find  in  your  trip  ;  dig  up 
a  block  of  soil  containing  the  burrows  of  earthworms, 


FIG.    12. — VIEW   OF   AN   IRRIGATING   DITCH   WHEN  MADE. 


FIG.    J3. — VIEW   OF   SAME   DITCH   TEN   YEARS    LATER. 


40  AGRICULTURE. 

and  make  a  drawing  of  both  vertical  and  horizontal,  or 
connecting,  channels. 

(d)  Note  any  environmental  changes  made  by  man  or 
other  animals,  or  by  plants. 

(c)  Note  any  fossils,  or  animal  accumulations. 

(d)  Remarks  and  conclusions.  (It  is  to  be  understood 
that  any  observation  made  under  any  of  the  foregoing 
heads  is  to  be  written  up  in  its  place,  whether  it  is  men- 
tioned in  this  outline  or  not.) 

[References  after  Chapter  III.] 


OUTLINE    OF    CHAPTER    II. 

CLASSIFICATION  AND  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS. 

^.— KINDS  AS  TO  DEPOSITION. 

I.  Sedentary,  or  Residual,  Soils. 

IL  Transported  Soils. 

1.  Drift. 

(i)   Boulder  Clay,  or  Till. 
(2)  Stratified  Drift. 

2.  Alluvial  Soils. 

^.— KINDS  OF  SOIL  AS  TO  DERIVATION. 
I.  Sandy,  or  Siliceous,  Soils. 

II.  Clayey,  or  Argillaceous,  Soils. 

III.  Limy,  or  Calcareous,  Soils. 

IV.  Humous  Soils. 

C.— PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS. 

Experiments  4,  5,  6,  7. 


%i 


CHAPTER  II. 

CLASSIFICATION  AND  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS. 

^.— KINDS  AS  TO  DEPOSITION. 

I.  Sedentary,  or  Residual,  Soils. 

These  are  formed  where  they  lie  by  the  weath- 
ering of  the  rocks  which  underlie  them.  They 
consist  of  those  parts  of  the  decayed  rock  which 
are  not  easily  dissolved  and  carried  away  by 
rains. 

These  soils  vary  in  depth.  In  certain  local- 
ities the  soil  is  only  about  seven  feet  thick,  and 
poor  in  soluble  compounds,  such  as  lime.  "In 
some  parts  of  our  Southern  States  the  felspathic 
rocks  are  often  found  thoroughly  disintegrated 
to  the  depths  of  50  to  100  feet."  * 

The  nature  of  residual  soils  depends  upon 
the  kind  of  bed-rock  underlying  them  and  the 
weathering.  "  Thus,  limestones  make  the  rich 
Blue-grass  Region  of  Kentucky,  and  sandstones 
make  the  poorer  part  of  the  State."  f 

True  soil,  usually  darker  in  color  on  account  of 
the  veoretable  mould  which  it  contains,  and  of  the 
"oxidation  and  hydration  of  its  minerals,"  forms 
the  surface  layer.  Below  it  is  the  subsoil,  which 
is  often  divided  into  layers,  and    which    some- 


*  Scott's  Geology,  p.  77. 

■I-  Gilbert  and  Brigham,  Physical  Geology,  p.  87. 


43 


44  AGRICULTURE. 

times  contains  great  masses  of  the  parent  rock 
which  have  not  been  decomposed.  By  grada- 
tions the  subsoil  shades  into  rotton  rock,  and 
from  this  into  solid  rock. 

II.  Transported  Soils. 

The  soils  upon  vast  areas  of  the  United 
States  have  not  been  formed  from  the  rock 
formation  which  underlies  them,  but  they  have 
been  transported  thither  over  long  distances 
by  ice,  or  water,  or  wind  (Chapter  I.). 

1.  Drift. — Soils  deposited  by  ice  are  called 
"drift,"  and  may  be  distinguished  by  the  pres- 
ence of  boulders.  These  soils  usually  consist  of  a 
variety  of  minerals  brought  together  from  differ- 
ent rock  formations  through  the  action  of 
glaciers.  Drift  soils  cover  great  areas  in  the 
United  States  north  of  the  39th  parallel. 

(i)  Boulder  Clay,  or  Till,  is  the  unstratified 
material  which  covers  the  greater  part  of  gla- 
ciated areas.  It  is  composed  partly  of  preglacial 
soils  and  stones  pushed  before  the  glaciers,  and 
partly  of  finely  pulverized  rock  gathered  from 
the  betl-rock  by  \.\\v.  grinding  and  scraping  or 
the  ekicier  itself. 

(2)  Stratified  Drifi-  is  also  found  where  it 
has  been  deposited  by  the  water  of  glacial 
streams. 

2.  Alluvial  Soils  are  those  which  have  been 
transported  by  streams  of  water  (Chapter  I.). 
These    are    usually    stratified,    often     differing 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS.     45 

in  the  kind  of  rock  material  as  well  as  in  its 
State  of  disintegration.  "  The  soils  of  the  cen- 
tral valley  of  California  have  mainly  come  down 
from  the  Sierras  by  the  wash  of  the  rivers.  The 
soils  of  Louisiana  have  been  brought  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  from  the  great  plains,  from 
the  prairies,  and  from  the  plateaus  and  moun- 
tains of  the  Appalachian  region.  They  have 
been  transferred  by  the  Mississippi  and  its 
branches.  The  earthy  mantle  of  Connecticut 
and  Rhode  Island  is  in  part  composed  of  rock 
flour  and  stones  brought  from  Massachusetts 
and  the  northern  New  England  States.  The 
Connecticut  and  other  rivers  have  done  some  of 
this  work,  but  much  more  is  due  to  the  great 
glacier  moving  south  over  that  region."  ^ 

^.— KINDS  OF  SOIL  AS  TO  DERIVATION. 

As  has  been  said,  the  basis  of  soils  is  disin- 
tegrated rock.  Hence,  the  physical  and  chem- 
ical properties  of  soils  depend  upon  the  geolog- 
ical formation  of  the  mass  of  rock  from  which  it 
is  derived. 

If  a  deposit  of  quartz  (SiOj),  which  it  is  esti- 
mated composes  one-half  of  the  rocks  of  the 
earth,  has  been  slowly  disintegrated  it  will  result 
in  hard,  distinct  grains  of  sand,  since  quartz  dis- 
integrates with  difficulty. 


*  Gilbert  and  Brigham,  Physical  Geology,  p.  87, 


46  AGRICULTURE. 

I.  Sand. 

Sand  is  "  light  and  open  " — that  is,  easy  to 
work.  It  absorbs  very  little  moisture  from  the 
air.  It  has  little  power  of  chemically  holding 
plant-food.  Sandy  soils  are  usually  poor  in 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  two  important  plant- 
foods. 

II.  Clay. 

If  a  feldspar — which  consists  of  silica,  alu- 
mina, and  one  or  more  of  the  alkalies,  potash, 
soda,  or  lime^ — ^has  been  disintegrated,  clay  will 
result.  The  term  "clay,"  however,  is  very 
loosely  applied  to  almost  any  kind  of  finely  pul- 
verized rock,  or  mud. 

Clay  soils  are  hard  to  work;  they  absorb  mois- 
ture from  the  air  readily.  They  contain,  chem- 
ically, much  plant-food,  being  often  rich  in 
potash  and  poor  in  lime  and  phosphoric  acid. 

Shale  is  a  rock  consisting  of  very  thin  layers. 
Its  composition  varies  greatly,  sometimes  grad- 
ing into  limestone  or  finely  grained  sandstone, 
•hales  form  mud  or  clay. 

III.  Calcareous  Soils. 

Some  soils  are  largely  composed  of  carbon- 
ate of  lime  from  the  disintegration  of  limestone, 
which  is  a  soft  rock  and  one  easily  dissolved. 
Soils  containing  a  large  per  cent,  of  limestone 
are  called  calcareous  soils.  Lime  makes  cla)- 
soils  more  easily  worked  and  sandy  soils  more 


48  AGRICULTURE. 

compact.  It  hastens  the  decay  of  vegetable 
matter.  Limy  soils  are  poor  in  potash  and  often 
rich  in  phosphates  (see  "  Lime,"  p.  95). 

IV-  Humous  Soils- 

The  decaying  organic  matter  in  soils  is  com' 
posed  of  compounds  of  nitrogen,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  carbon,  and  is  called  "  humus." 
Soils  containing  a  large  per  cent,  of  this  or- 
ganic matter  are  designated  as  "  humous 
soils."  Humus  gives  a  dark  brown  or  black- 
ish color  to  the  soil.  Leaf  mould  very  largely 
consists  of  humus.  Either  a  sandy  or  a  clay 
soil  is  improved  by  humus,  not  only  on  ac- 
count of  the  additional  plant-food,  such  as  car- 
bon dioxide,  ammonia,  and  water,  which  is  fur- 
nished by  its  ultimate  decomposition,  but  more 
especially  on  account  of  the  improvement  of 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 

Humus  absorbs  and  retains  moisture,  and  thus 
improves  a  sandy  soil.  It  improves  a  clay  soil 
by  making  it  less  compact  and  better  aerated. 
It  improves  the  physical  condition  of  worn-out 
soils.  4 

Humous  soils  are  often  rich  in  nitrogen  and 
poor  in  mineral  plant-food.  A  soil  formed  from 
the  addition  of  humus  to  a  sand,  clay,  or  calcare- 
ous loam  is  called  a  clay  or  argillaceous  loam, 
or  calcareous  loam,  according  to  the  kind  of  soil 
which  forms  the  basis. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  SOIL        49 

C— PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. 

Experiment  4.  Part  i. — (a)  Collect  a  quantity  of 
dry  sand,  and  one  of  dry  clay,  and  one  of  dry  garden 
loam,  and  one  of  dry  humus.  Keep  these  in  adry  place 
in  separate  boxes,  for  use  in  the  following  experiments. 

(d)  Get  four  small,  similar-sized  boxes,  and  fill  each 
box  with  one  of  these  soils. 

(c)  Weigh  each  one  separately.  Which  is  heaviest? 
Which  lightest  ? 

{d)  How  many  cubic  inches  of  soil  in  each  box  ? 
What  part  of  a  cubic  foot  ?  How  many  square  feet  in 
an  acre  ?  How  much  would  an  acre  of  soil  to  the  depth 
of  one  foot  weigh  if  each  cubic  foot  weighed  the  same 
as  a  cubic  foot  of  your  sample  of  garden  soil  ? 

{e)  If  this  acre  produced  a  crop  of  twenty-five  bushels 
of  wheat  and  2,500  pounds  of  straw,  how  many  pounds* 
has  this  crop  taken  from  one  acre  of  soil  ?  This  may 
seem  a  very  small  amount  to  be  taken  from  the  soil, but 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  some  soils  contain  a  very 
small  per  cent.,  or  fraction  of  a  per  cent.,  of  some  of  the 
very  essential  plant-foods  (as,  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  or 
nitrates),  while  plants  vary  in  their  demands  for  these 
different  foods.  So  it  is  that  certain  essential  plant- 
foods,  as  nitrogen,  may  be  nearly  exhausted  from  a  given 
soil  by  repeatedly  growing  certain  plants  which  make 
large  demands  of  that  particular  element  from  the  soil, 
and  yet  the  same  soil  may  be  abundantly  able  to  sustain 
other  plants  which  dem^d  less  of  that  element  from 
the  soil  f 

Part  2. —  (a)  Place  these  four  boxes  (Part  i,  />)  of  soils 
in  a  cool,  dry  place.      With   them    place  three  similar 


*  At  least  95  per  cent,  of  the  material  composing  the  plant  is 
obtained  from  the  air  and  water,  and  but  5  per  cent,  from  the 
soil. 

f  See  "  Leguminous  Plants"  and  "  Fertilizers." 


50 


AGRICULTURE 


boxes,  each  containing  one  of  tJiese  soils,  sand,  clay, 
loam  and  humus,  which  has  been  thoroughly  saturated 
with  water. 

(d)  Put  a  thermometer  with  the  bulb  at  the  depth  of  two 

inches  in  each  of 
these  eight  boxes, 
and  allow  them  to 
stand  until  the  fol- 
lowing morning  ; 
then  record  the 
temperature  of 
each. 

{c)  Place  all  the 
boxes  where  they 
will  be  equally  ex- 
posed to  bright 
sunlight,  and  note 
the  temperature  of 
each  soil  every  two 
hours  from  8  a.m. 
to  4  P.M.,  taking 
care  to  note  wheth- 
er the  sun  is  under 
a  cloud  at  the  time 
of  each  observa- 
tion. 

(a)  Upon  a  piece 
of  co-ordinate 
paper  indicate  the 
temperature  curve 
of  each  of  these  soils  dry,  and  that  of  each  of  these  soils 
wet,  similar  to  that  indicated  for  a  humous  soil  in 
Fig.  15.  In  these  curves  (Fig.  15)  the  space  between 
each  two  horizontal  lines  represents  one  degree,  while 
that  between  each  two  vertical  lines  represents  two 
hours. 


1 

\ 

/»• 

,f 

H^ 

1 

7 

^ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

1 

\ 

r' 

4 

f 

'/ 

/ 

/y 

KIC.     15 


/ZM.       £BK      ¥BtL    ^FM.. 

TEMPERATURE    CURVES    OK    A 
HUMOUS    SOIL. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS      51 

Let  the  temperature  curve  of  the  loam  be  indicated  by 

an  unbroken  line ,  that  of  sand  by  a  broken    line 

,  and  that  of  clay  by  a  dotted  line ,  and  that 

of  humus  by  a  line  and  then  a  dot 

Compare.  Give  a  reason  for  the  differences  in  tem- 
perature between  these  soils. 

(e)  On  the  next  bright  day  again  saturate  one  box  of 
each  of  these  soils,  and  place  the  dry  and  wet  soils  in 
the  bright  sunlight,  ^^t  noon  record  the  temperature  of 
each,  and  remove  all  to  the  shade  indoors. 

{/)  Note  the  temperature  at  2  p.m.  and  4  P.M.  Which 
soil,  dry,  retains  the  greatest  amount  of  heat  ?  Which 
soil,  wet,  retains  the  greatest  amount  of  heat? 

(g)  What  conclusion  of  practical  value  do  you  draw 
from  your  results?  Could  you  improve  the  condition  of 
any  or  all  of  these  soils  with  regard  to  the  absorption 
and  retention  of  heat  ?     How  ? 

Part  3. — (a)  Thoroughly  moisten  these  soils  and  try 
to  mold  a  handful  of  each  kind  (sand,  clay,  loam,  humus) 
into  some  desired  form. 

(d)  Which  soil  has  the  greatest  power  of  holding  its 
particles  together  ?  Which  the  least  ?  Which  soij 
will  be  most  liable  to  puddle  ?  Which  most  apt  tc 
bake  ? 

(c)  Mix  each  of  these  soils  with  one-fifth  its  bulk  of 
lime,  and  repeat  (a). 

(d)  Mix  each  with  one-third  sand,  and  repeat  (a). 
(<?)  Mix  each  with  one-third  humus,  and  repeat  (a). 
Of  course,  one  could  not  apply  sand,  lime,  or  humus 

in  quite  such  large  proportions  in  the  open  field,  but  it 
could  be  done  for  house  plants,  and  in  smaller  propor- 
tions in  gardens  and  fields.  Which  of  these  soils  would 
be  improved  for  working  by  (^)?  (d)?  (<?)? 

Experiment  5. — {a)  Procure  three  pieces  of  tubing  of 
equal  lengths  and  diameters — from  two  to  two  and  one- 
half  feet  long,  and  one-half  inch  or  more  in  diameter. 


52 


AGRICULTURE. 


{/>)  Firmly  tie  over  tiie  bottom  of  each  tube  a  square 
of  clieese-clotli.     (I'ig.  i6.) 

(r)  Weigh  each  tube  separately,  and  tlien  record  :he 
weights. 

(</)  Fill  the  tubes  three-fourths  full  of  </r/V</ sand,  clay, 
humus,  and  loam  respectively. 

{e)  Carefully  weigh  each  tube  with  its  contents,  and 
record  the.  weights. 

(/)  Now  fill  each  tube  with  water  which  has  been 
leached  from  stable  compost,  taking  care  to  record  the 
exact  time  when  the  water  Jirst  comes  in  contact  with  the 
soil. 

(g)  Support  or  suspend  these  tubes  in  an  upright  po- 
sition (Fig.  1 6),  and  allow  the  water  from  each  tube 
to  drip  into  a  separate  vessel.  Observe  and  record  the 
time  required  for  the  water  to  begin  to  drip  from  each 
tube.  Keep 
each  tube  filled 
with  the  leach- 
ed water  until 
the  soil  is  satur- 
ated. Through 
which  tube  did 
the  water  pass 
most  rapidly? 
This  passage  of 
water  down- 
ward through 
the  soil  is  call- 
ed perc  o 1  a  - 
tion. 

(/i)  Compare  the  color  and  the  odor  of  the  water  per- 
colated. Through  which  of  these  soils  will  soluble 
plant-food  most  readily  leach  ?  Which  soil  will  absorb 
the  most  plant-food  from  the  water  which  percolates 
through  it  ? 


x^^I^^^^^G 


S 


KIC.    l6. An-AKATirs     KOR     KXl'EKIMKNT    ?. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  SOIL. 


53 


(/)  Allow  the  liquid  to  drip  for  half  an  hour,  and  com- 
pare the  water  which  now  percolates  through  with  that 
first  percolated.  Is  it  safe  to  depend  upon  the  soil  to  act 
as  a  filter  in  purifying  the  water  of  wells  from  organic 
matter  ? 

(y)  Very  carefully  pour  off  all  the  water  remaining  in 
the  tubes,  and  weigh  each  tube  with  its  contents,  record 
the  weights,  and  compare  with  those  of  (<?).  Which  soil 
retained  the  greatest  amount  of  water  ? 

Experiment  6. — (a)  Procure  a  set  of  capillary  tubes 
(Fig.  17) — four  or  five  tubes — varying  in  diameter  from 
a  hair  tube   to   one   one-fourth    inch  in  diameter. 

(^)   Half  fill  a  beaker,  or  tumbler, 
with  water  colored  with  red  ink. 

(r)   In  a  piece  of  pasteboard  punch 
several  holes  corresponding   in   size 
and  number  to  the  tubes  used;  thrust 
the     tubes     through     the     holes    to 
three-fourths  the  distance,  below,  of 
the  height  of  the  beaker.    Now  cover 
the     beaker     with    this    pasteboard, 
allowing  the  tubes  to  extend   down 
into  the  colored  liquid  (Fig.  17). 
(d)   Note  the  height  to  which  tlie 
Capillary  rise  of  liquid  not  liquid  rises  in  eacli  tube.      In   wliich 
shown.  highest?  \.-^    ^ 

The  wall  of  the  tube  attracts  the  film  of  water 
next  to  it,  and  tends  to  spread  it  out  over  the 
surface  of  the  tube,  overcoming  the  resistance 
of  the  surface  tension  of  the  liquid  itself.  Notice 
that  the  surface  of  the  liquid  both  inside  and 
outside  of  the  tubes  assumes  a  concave  shape, 
on  account  of  the  creeping  up  of  the  liquid  next 
to  the  wall,  caused  by  the   attraction   between 


FIG,      17.  —  APPARATUS 
FOR  EXPERIMENT  6. 


54 


AGRICULTURE. 


FIG.    I8. — APPARATUS    FOR   EXPERIMENT    7. 

the  solid  and  liquid  substances.    (See  any  good 
physics  for  capillary  action). 

The  pores  in  an  open,  or  gravelly,  soil  act  as 
the  larger  tubes,  while  the  smaller  pores  of  a 


CLASSIFICATION  AND   PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS.      55 

less  open  or  more  finely  pulverized  soil  act  as 
the  fine  tubes  in  conveying  moisture. 

Experiment  7. — (a)  Take  four  glass  tubes  one-half 
inch  or  more  in  diameter  and  four  feet  in  length  * 
(Fig.  18).  Over  the  bottom  of  each  of  these  tubes  firmly 
tie  a  square  of  cheese-cloth. 

{b)  Thoroughly  pulverize  the  dried  clay  and  loam. 
Firmly  and  evenly  fill  each  tube  \vith  the  sand,  clay,  loam, 
and  humus  respectively.  Stand  them  in  a  pan  of  water 
with  a  layer  of  gravel  in  the  bottom,  and  record  the 
time  of  so  doing.     Keep  the  pan  well  filled  with  water. 

{c)  At  intervals — from  one  to  three  hours  during  the 
first  day  or  two — note  tlie  height  of  the  water  in  each 
tube.  After  the  second  day,  once  a  day  will  be  often 
enough  to  make  observations. 

{d)  Continue  the  observations  and  records  until  the 
water  no  longer  rises  in  any  tube. 

(<f)  In  which  tube  did  the  water  rise  most  rapidly? 
In  which  to  the  greatest  height?  This  power  of  drawing 
water  upward  through  the  soil  is  called  capillarity. 

Exercise  2. — From  the  data  obtained  in  performing 
these  experiments,  write  up  \\\&  physical  properties  of  each 
of  these  four  kinds  of  soil.  Your  description  of  each 
soil  should  cover  the  following  points:  Color,  weight  of 
a  cubic  foot,  light  or  heavy  to  work,  power  to  absorb 
heat,  power  to  retain  heat,  power  of  holding  soil  particles 
together,  porosity,  power  to  absorb  and  retain  water, 
capillarity,  and  any  remarks. 

[References  after  Chapter  III.] 


*  Straight  lamp-chimneys  may  be  substituted  for  the  long  glass 
tubing.    It  is  more  economical,  and  will  give  satisfactory  results, 


OUTLINE    OF    CHAPTER    III. 

SOIL  MOISTURE  AND   PREPARATION   OF  THE  SOIL. 

^.-SOIL    MOISTURE. 

I.  Kinds  of  Moisture. 

1.  Groiaui  Water. 

2.  Capillary  Water 

3.  Hygroscopic  Water. 

Experiment  8 

II.  Relation  to  Plants. 

1.  Dissolves  Plant-food. 

2.  Conveys  Plant-food. 

Experiment  9. 

3.  Constitutes  Plant-food. 

Experiment   10. 

4.  Tends  to  Regulate  Temperature. 

III.  Field  Exercise  No.  3- 

^.—PREPARATION    OF    THE    SOIU 

I.  Drainage. 

Experiments  ii  and  12. 

II.  Irrigation. 

EXPERIMENI      13. 

III.  Preparation  of  Seed-bed. 

1.  Plowitig. 

2.  Surface  Tillage. 

Experiment  14. 

C— REFERENCES. 

57 


CHAPTER    III. 

SOIL   MOISTURE  AND   PREPARATION   OF  THE   SOIL. 

^.— SOIL   MOISTURE. 

It  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  experiments 
that  the  particles  of  soil  and,  therefore,  of  the 
spaces  between  them,  vary  in  size.  When  the 
soil  is  dry  most  of  the  spaces  are  filled  with  air, 
but  when  the  soil  becomes  wet  the  air  is  driven 
out  by  the  water. 

I.  Kinds  of  Moisture. 

1.  Ground  Water. — The  water  which  perco- 
lates through  the  soil  under  the  influence  of 
gravity  until  it  reaches  an  impervious  layer  of 
hard-pan,  or  rock,  is  called  the  free  or  ground 
water  of  the  soil.  Above  the  hard-pan,  or  rock, 
is  a  layer — varying  in  thickness — of  saturated, 
or  water-soaked,  soil.  It  is  from  this  free  water 
that  the  supply  is  obtained  for  springs  and  wells. 
In  dry  weather  it  is  drawn  upon  by  capillary 
action  to  furnish  the  moisture  for  vegetation, 
but  if  this  free  water  is  allowed  to  stand  too 
near  the  surface  of  the  soil  it  is  injurious  to 
most  plants.  In  soils  of  close  texture  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  remove  the  surplus  water  by 
drainage. 

2.  Capillary  Water  is  that  which  is  held  in 
the  spaces  between  the  soil  particles  by  capillary 

59 


60  AGRICULTURE. 

attraction,  or  the  overcomin<^  of  the  influence 
of  gravity  by  the  adhesion  between  the  water 
and  the  solid  particles,  and  is  of  direct  use  to 
plants. 

3.  Hys^roscopic  Moisture.  —  Each  particle  of 
soil  is  surrounded  by  a  film  of  moisture,  or  hy- 
groscopic water.  It  is  held  so  firmly  that  even 
roadside  dust  contains  this  film. 

Experiment  8. — Fill  a  test-tube  one-third  full  of 
dry  roadside  dust;  heat  it  gradually  to  a  high  temper- 
ature. Allow  it  to  cool,  and  see  if  any  moisture  con- 
denses upon  the  tube. 

11.  Relation  to  Plants. 

1.  Dissolves  Plant-food. — This  surface  film  of 
water,  through  the  carbonic  and  humic  acids 
which  it  contains  (Chapter  I.),  acts  directly 
upon  the  plant-foods  locked  up  in  the  soil,  dis- 
solving the  mineral  substances  and  giving  them 
up  to  the  surrounding  capillary  water. 

2.  Conveys  Plant-food. — As  has  been  seen, 
solids  have  an  attraction  for  liquids.  It  is  also 
true  that  denser  or  thicker  liquids  have  an  at- 
traction for  thinner  ones;  so  it  is,  as  the  mois- 
ture is  evaporated  from  the  leaves  and  green 
bark  of  plants,  leaving  behind  the  solid  sub- 
stances, the  fluid  in  the  plant  becomes  denser 
than  the  soil  water,  and  there  is  thus  established, 
through  the  cell  wall  of  the  plant,  a  flow  of  the 
thinner  liquid,  or  soil  water,  toward  the  denser 
protoplasm  of  the  cells.     This  process  is  called 


SOIL   MOISTURE    AND    PREPARATION    OF    SOIL.  61 


osmosis.  Thus  the  soil  water  not  only  dissolves 
the  plant-food,  but  through  capillary  action  and 
osmosis  actually  carries  this  food  to  the  plant. 

Experiment  9. — {a)  Take  any  single-stemmed   grow- 
ing plant,  place  the  roots  in 
a    wide-mouthed    bottle    half 
full  of  water. 

{b)  Make  the  bottle  air-tight 
(to  avoid  the  evaporation  of 
the  water)  by  splitting  a  cork 
into  halves,  hollowing  out  the 
center,  and  fitting  them  about 
the  stem  of  the  plant ;  now 
fill  any  crevice  about  the 
stem,  or  in  the  top  of  the  cork, 
with  melted  paraffin.*  Invert 
the  bottle  to  see  if  any  watei 
escapes  ;  if  so,  the  cork  is  not 
fitted  air-tight,  and  melted 
paraffin  must  be  applied 
where  it  leaks, 

{c)  When  the  bottle  is  air- 
tight weigh  it,  and  record 
date  and  weight.  The  follow- 
ing day  place  it  where  the 
plant  will  be  exposed  to  direct 
sunlight,  and  weigh  every  day 
or  two  for  two  or  three  weeks. 
How  much  water  has  the  plant 
used  ?  Of  what  use  to  the 
plant  was  the  water? 

Hellriegel,    through    his    experiments,    found 


19.  — APTAKATUS    FOR 
EXPKRTMENT    9. 


*  Paraffin   melts   at  a  low  temperature,  and  will  not  injure  the 
plant  if  carefully  applied. 


62  AGRICULTURE. 

that  the  amounts  of  water  evaporated  from 
the  soil  and  given  to  the  air  almost  wholly 
through  the  plant  were :  by  barley  and  red 
clover,  310  pounds  of  water  to  one  pound  of  dry 
matter  produced;  oats,  376  pounds;  peas,  273 
pounds ;  and  buckwheat,  363  pounds  to  one 
pound  of  dry  matter.  Plants  differ  in  their  de- 
mands for  water,  hence  some  kinds  of  plants  are 
found  upon  dry  soils  and  others  upon  wet  soils. 

3.  Constitutes  Plant-food. — Water  itself  con- 
stitutes an  important  plant  food. 

Experiment  10. — {a)  Secure  some  green  but  well- 
grown  plant  (roots  and  all),  as  clover,  corn,  or  cow-peas; 
carefully  remove  the  soil  from  the  roots. 

(b)  Weigh  the  plant  accurately,  and  record  the 
weights. 

(<r)  Hang  the  plant  in  a  warm,  dry  place  for  two  or 
three  weeks,  or  until  perfectly  dry. 

{il)  Weigh  again,  and  record  weights.  What  per  cent, 
of  the  plant  was  water  ?     What  per  cent,  dry  matter  ? 

4.  Tends  to  Regulate  Temperature.  —  The 
water  which  percolates  through  the  soil  from 
spring  rains  is  warmer  than  the  soil  and  tends 
to  raise  the  temperature,  while  that  from  sum- 
mer rains  is  cooler  than  the  soil  and  tends  to 
lower  the  temperature. 

III.  Held  Exercise  No.  3. 

{a)  Let  the  student  look  for  different  kinds  of  soil — as, 
dry,  sandy  soil,  and  wet  soil — in  the  vicinity. 

{b)  Note  (observe  and  list)  the  kinds  of  wild  or  culti- 
vated plants  growing  upon  each  kind  of  soil.  Do  some 
plants  thrive  in  one  soil  which  are  not  found  in  others? 


SOIL   MOISTURE   AND    PREPARATION    OF   SOIL.  63 

(c)  If  a  farm  contain  certain  areas  of  each  of  these 
kinds  of  soil,  what  use  can  the  farmer  make  of  this  sug- 
gestion of  Nature  ?  Are  any  of  the  same  kinds  of  plants 
found  upon  all  of  these  soils?  If  so,  compare  their  con- 
ditions. 

(d)  Can  you  give  reasons  for  these  conditions?  In 
which  soils  can  the  air  enter  freely  ?  Which  with  more 
difficulty?  Which  gives  the  best  support  in  time  of 
storms?     Will  each  soil  require  the  same  treatment? 

Experiments  9  and  10  show  how  essential  soil 
moisture  is  to  plants.  Water  and  air  not  only 
furnish  95  per  cent,  of  the  food  of  plants,  but 
the  remaining  5  per  cent,  cannot  be  obtained 
from  the  soil  except  through  the  agency  of  air 
and  water.  Heat  and  light  are  also  important 
factors  in  plant  growth.  It  has  been  shown  that 
soils  vary  in  the  power  to  admit  air,  and  in  the 
power  to  absorb  and  retain  heat,  and  that  the 
condition  with  regard  to  soil  moisture  affects 
these  variations.  The  farmer  can,  by  proper 
methods  of  drainage  and  tillage,  greatly  modify 
or  regulate  X\\^s^  factoids  of  plant  growth — water, 
air,  and  heat — in  the  soil.  It  is  evident  that  dif- 
ferent soils  require  different  methods,  and  that 
the  same  soil  requires  different  treatment  for 
different  plants.  Tillage  does  not  add  plant- 
food  to  the  soil,  but  it  does  render  food  already 
in  the  soil  available  to  the  plant. 

^.— PRLPARATION    OF^  THE    SOIL. 

The  first  thing  for  a  farmer  to  do,  and  then  to 
continue  doing,  is  to  study  Ids  soils,  taking  into 


64  AGRICULTURt. 

consideration  the  climate.  The  next  thing  to 
do  is  to  consider  what  crops  are  best  adapted  to 
the  different  soils,  remembering  that  both  the 
immediate  crops  and  the  condition  of  the  soil 
for  future  crops  are  to  be  regarded.  Thus  fol- 
lows the  consideration  of  the  treatment  of  each 
kind  of  soil  for  the  crop  selected  or  the  prepara- 
tion and  tillage  of  the  soil. 

I.  Drainagfe. 

Experiment  ii. — {a)  Take  two  eight-inch  flower-pots 
and  label  them  i  and  2,  respectively.  In  No.  i  pour  a 
sufficient  amount  of  melted  paraffin  in  the  bottom  to 
plug  up  the  hole,  so  that  no  air  may  pass  in,  and  no 
water  pass  out  through  the  bottom  of  the  pot.  In  the 
bottom  of  No.  2  place  a  layer  about  an  inch  in  depth  of 
stones  or  pieces  of  broken  pottery. 

(l>)  Nearly  fill  each  pot  with  a  mixture  of  three-fourths 
good  soil,  thorcjughly  pulverized,  and  one-fourth  sand. 

{c)  Place  in  each  pot  a  young,  healthy  plant  of  the 
same  size  and  kind. 

(</)  Now  carefully  sprinkle  each  with  water  until  the 
soil  is  saturated. 

{e)  After  a  day  or  two  put  these  pots  in  a  sunny  win- 
dow. 

(/)  In  each  place  a  thermometer,  with  the  bulb  at  a 
depth  of  two  inches 

{^g)  Every  two  or  three  days  note  the  temperature,  and 
the  condition  of  the  soil  and  of  the  plants  in  each  pot. 
In  which  pot  does  the  water  percolate  through  the  soil 
the  more  rapidly?  If  each  of  these  conditions  of  soil 
moisture  was  found  in  separate  fields,  which  field  would 
be  more  apt  to  be  flooded  in  time  of  heavy  rains?  In 
which  could  air  penetrate  the  more  readily  ?  In  which 
would  the  temperature  be  higher? 


SOIL   MOISTURE   AND    PREPARATION    OF    SOIL.  65 

(k)  At  regular  intervals — say,  every  two  or  three  days 
— apply  equal  quantities  of  water  to  each  of  these  pots. 

(/ )  In  about  five  or  six  weeks  remove  the  soil — plant  and 
all  (see  "Propagation  of  Plants") — and  note  the  depths 
to  which  the  roots  have  penetrated.  In  which  have  they 
gone  the  deeper,  the  drained  or  undrained  soil  ?  If  these 
conditions  of  soil  moisture  existed  in  the  open  field  in 
early  spring,  and  were  followed  by  a  drought,  how 
would  these  root  systems  compare  in  aiding  the  plant 
to  withstand  it?  In  nature,  when  these  root  systems 
die,  how  would  they  compare  in  affecting  the  porosity 
of  the  soil  ?  How  would  such  soils  affect  the  nitrogen- 
fixing  bacteria  (Chapter  I.)  ?  How  would  the  work  of 
earth-worms,  grubs,  and  other  burrowing  animals  com- 
pare in  these  two  soils  ? 

Soils  having  a  loose  and  open  subsoil  are  nat- 
urally underdrained,  and  do  not  need  to  be  arti- 
ficially drained.  Soils  of  fine  texture,  or  those 
having  a  clay  or  hard  subsoil,  do  not  allow  the 
free  water  to  percolate  through  them,  and  it 
stands  very  near  the  surface,  unless  artificially 
drained.  It  is  not  as  the  water  passes  down 
through  the  soil  that  it  is  carried  away  by  drains, 
but  as  it  rises  again  in  saturating  the  soil  above 
the  impervious  layer  of  hard-pan  or  bed-rock. 
The  deeper  the  drain  the  greater  the  area  drain- 
ed, hence  the  wider  apart  the  drains  may  be. 

ExPERiMNT  12. — {a)  Procure  a  keg,  or  barrel,  which 
does  not  leak,  and  in  its  side  bore  two  or  three  holes,  one 
above  the  other,  about  twelve  inches  apart,  the  first  hole 
being  six  inches  from  the  bottom. 

{l>)  Nearly  fill  this  keg,  or  barrel,  with  soil.  Shake  it 
down  firmly. 


56  AGRICULTURE. 

(<-)  Gradually  pour  water  into  the  center  of  the  keg — 
where  the  soil  should  be,  perhaps,  a  little  lower — until  it 
runs  out  of  some  one  of  the  holes. 

According  to  your  result,  which  would  carry  off  the 
water  first — a  shallow  or  a  deep  drain  ? 

In  shallow  drains  there  is  danger  that  the  tile 
may  be  injured  by  frost.  The  depth  to  which 
a  drain  should  be  laid  depends  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil;  the  more  compact  soil  requires 
more  numerous  and  shallower  drains.  Three  or 
four  feet  deep  and  one  hundred  feet  apart  are 
sufificient  for  ordinary  farm  crops.  "  The  carry- 
ing capacity  of  tile  varies  with  the  square  of  the 
diameter."  *  In  every  drain  the  tile  should  in- 
crease in  size  as  the  quantity  of  water  increases. 
Tile  varying  from  three  to  six  inches,  with 
larger  size  for  mains,  are  generally  used. 

Since  tile-drains  admit  more  or  less  atmos- 
pheric air,  as  the  temperature  and  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  rise  and  fall,  the  circula- 
tion of  the  air  is  produced  below  the  roots  of 
plants  as  well  as  above  them. 

II.  Irrigation. 

ExPKRiMKNT  13. — (a)  Procure  a  box  about  three  feet 
long,  one  and  one-half  wide,  and  one  foot  deep. 

(d)  In  the  center  of  one  side,  near  the  bottom,  bore  a 
hole,  and  fit  into  it  a  cork  (Fig.  20). 

{c)  Nearly  fill  the  box  with  dry,  pulverized  soil,  and 
shake  it  down  well. 

(d)   Now  make  a  shallow  trench  in  the  soil,  across  the 

*  Soils  II Nd  Crops,  Morrow  and  Hunt,  p.  66, 


SOIL   MOISTURE   AND    PREPARATION    OF   SOIL.  G7 

center  of  the  box,  and  slowly  pour  water  into  it,  until  the 
soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  box  is  moist,  as  determined  by 
removing  tlie  cork,  and  thrusting  a  rod,  or  straw,  into 
the  hole. 

(<f)  Now,  beginning  at  each  side  of  the  trench,  remove 
a  layer  of  the  soil  three  inches  in  depth,  noting  carefully 
just  how  far  the  water  has  extended  from  the  trench  by 
lateral  capillary  action. 


FIG.     20. APPARATUS    FOR    EXl'KRIMKNT    I3. 

(/)  Remove  another  layer  of  soil  three  inches  in 
depth,  and  note  the  lateral  extension  of  the  water  at  this 
depth. 

[g)  Remove  a  third  layer  three  inches  in  depth,  and 
note  again.  Compare  the  lateral  extension  of  the  water 
at  each  of  these  depths  with  that  of  the  other  two. 

It  is  upon  this  principle  of  lateral  capillary 
action  that  irrigation  is  based. 

III.  Preparation  of  the  Seed-bed. 

I.  Plowing  \s  done  before  planting  (0  ^o  de- 
stroy weeds  by  completely  covering  them  ;  (2) 
to  bring  plant-food  to  the  surface  ;  (3)  to  pul- 
verize and  aerate  the  soil  ;  and  (4)  to  allow  the 


68  AGRICULTURE. 

water  to  percolate  through  the  soil  instead  of 
running  off  of  the  surface.  Plowing  should 
never  be  done  when  the  soil  is  wet  enough  to 
puddle.* 

A  soil  which  is  loose  and  open,  or  one  having 
a  sandy  subsoil,  does  not  require  such  deep 
plowing  as  a  more  compact  soil.  If  the  soil  is 
wet  and  not  underdrained,  plowing  may  only 
increase  the  supply  of  ground  water.  If  it  is 
desired  to  deepen  a  soil,  it  is  best  to  plow  a  little 
deeper  each  time,  so  that  the  portion  of  subsoil 
brought  to  the  surface  will  not  be  sufficient  to 
materially  injure  the  character  of  the  soil  for  the 
immediate  crop.  A  small  amount  can  be  more 
readily  acted  upon  by  the  weathering  agencies 
than  a  greater  amount  can  be. 

Plowing  at  different  depths  prevents  the 
formation  of  a  hard-pan  by  the  tramping  of  the 
horses  at  the  same  depth  in  successive  plow- 
ings.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  soil  is  very 
porous,  it  may  be  prevented  from  leaching  by 
plowing  at  the  same  depth  to  form  this  hard- 
pan,  thus  keeping  the  free,  or  ground  water, 
within  the  reach  of  plants.  If  deep-feeding 
plants — as,  alfalfa,  clover,  or  vetch — are  to  oc- 
cupy the  land,  it  should  be  deeply  plowed,  and 
thoroughly  pulverized. 

In  early  spring  shallow  plowing  is  usually 
preferable,   as  the  deeper  soil  is  not  so  warm 

*  See  "  Propagation." 


SOIL   MOISTURE   AND   PREPARATION   OF   SOIL.  69 


i      j       ^  ^        ^^       /-        * 


FIG.    21. — A    GOOD    PLOW. 

Paris  of  a  Plow. — a.  The  standard,  or  stock,  to  which  many 
parts  are  attached. — b.  The  beam,  by  which  the  plow  is  drawn. — 
c.  Handles. — d.  Clevis.  By  placing  the  ring  in  the  upper  holes  of 
the  clevis,  the  plow  is  made  to  run  deep;  by  placing  the  ring  in 
the  lower  holes,  the  plow  is  made  to  run  shallow;  by  moving  the 
clevis  to  the  right,  the  plow  is  made  to  cut  a  wider  furrow. — e. 
The  share,  which  cuts  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  slice. — f.  The 
mouldboard.  which  turns  and  breaks  the  furrow  slice. — h.  The 
coulter  which,  when  fastened  to  the  beam,  just  in  front  of  mould- 
board,  cuts  the  furrow  slice  from  the  land,  and  in  disk-form  is 
useful  in  turning  under  weeds. — i.  The  jointer,  which  skims  stub- 
ble and  grass  from  the  soil,  and  throws  them  into  the  bottom  of 
the  furrow  to  be  completely  covered,  and  helps  to  pulverize  the 
soil. — J.  The  truck,  or  wheel,  attached  to  the  end  of  the  beam 
which  steadies  the  plow  and  lightens  the  draft. 

nor  so  dry  as  that  near  the  surface.  For  winter 
wheat,  if  the  ground  has  been  plowed  in  the 
spring,  it  will  require  only  shallow  plowing,  or, 
if  an  open  soil,  disking  may  be  sufficient. 

If  plowing  is  for  the  purpose  of  drying  and 
warming  the  land  in  the  early  spring  the  fur- 
row slices  should  not  be  turned  down  flat,  but 
allowed  to  incline  at  an  angle  to  allow  the  air 


TO 


AGRICULTURE. 


and  heat  to  enter.      The  same  plan  is  beneficial 
if  the  plowing  is  clone  in   the  fall,  as  the  rains 


Kin.    22. — A    PLANK    HARROW. 


will  percolate  through  the  soil  instead  of  run- 
ning off  of  the  surface. 

2.   Surface    Tillage. — Plowing    should  be  fol- 
lowed by  surface-working  tools,  to  pulverize  the 


FU;.    23. A    ROLLING    CriTKR    HARROW 

the  ground  and  to  prepare  an  earth  mulch. 
The  first  surface  tillage  to  follow  the  plowing 
should  be  done  before  the  ground  becomes  too 
liard  and  dry  with  a  heavy,  coarse  tool  to  crush 


SOIL   MOISTURE   AND    PREPARATION    OF   SOIL,  71 

the  clods,  as  a  drag,  or  planker,  or  rolling  cut 
ter  harrow  (Fig.  23),  or  spring-toothed  harrow 


FTO.     24. A    STRING-TOOTHED     HARROW. 

(Fig.  24).  The  seed-bed  may  be  completed  by 
a  fine-toothed,  lighter  harrow,  or  a  coulter 
harrow  (Fig.  25),  which  "cuts,  turns,  and  pul- 
verizes "  the  soil. 


Fir,.    25. — A    COULTER-TOOTHED    HARROW. 

The  roller  is  not  used  so  much  as  formerly, 
since  it  leaves  the  soil  in  such  a  condition  that 
capillary  water  may  rise  to  the  surface.      Plank- 


72  AGRICULTURE. 

ers*  (Fig.  22)  are  usually  better  than  rollers, 
since  they  grind  the  clods  instead  of  pushing 
them  down  into  the  soil,  and  make  a  smooth  sur- 
face for  seed-bed.  Rolling  after  planting  may 
aid  the  germination  of  the  seeds  in  dry  weather, 
as  it  brings  the  moisture  within  their  reach; 
especially  is  it  beneficial  in  the  case  of  fine 
seeds.  Rolling  corhpacts  the  soil  (hence  it 
benefits  a  light,  open  soil),  but  should  not  be 
practiced  upon  a  heavy  or  wet  soil. 

Experiment  14. — {a)  Take  four  gallon-cans,  or  paint 
buckets,  label  them  i,  2.  3,  4.  Make  several  holes  in 
the  bottom  of  each,  and  put  a  layer  of  coarse  stones,  or 
pieces  of  broken  pottery,  in  the  bottom, 

(J))  Fill  cans  i,  2,  and  3  to  within  one-fourth  inch  of 
the  top  with  mellow  soil,  and  can  4  to  within  three  inches 
of  the  top.     Firm  the  soil  well  in  each  can. 

(<r)  Stand  all  of  them  in  water  until  the  surface  soil 
becomes  moistened.  How  does  the  surface  become 
moist?  In  field  conditions,  how  would  this  supply  of 
moisture  be  obtained  ? 

(rf')  Take  them  out  of  the  water  and  allow  them  to 
stand  until  the  surface  is  drj-  enough  to  work.  Leave 
No.  I  as  it  is,  and  carefully  pulverize  and  loosen  the 
soil  in  No.  2  to  the  depth  of  two  inches,  and  that  in 
No.  3  to  a  depth  of  three  inches,  and  cover  No.  4  with 
a  three-inch  mulch  of  sawdust  or  straw. 

{e)   Weigh  each  can  separately,  and  record  the  weights. 

(/)  Place  all  under  similar  conditions — if  possible,  in 
an  open  window,  or  where  the  air  will  pass  over  them 
freely. 

*  Fertility  of  the  Soil,  Roberts,  p.  103,  and  Principles  of  Agri- 
culture, Hailey,  p.  75. 


SOIL   MOISTURE   AND    PREPARATION    OF   SOIL.  73 


(g)  Allow  them  to  stand  until  the  surface  of  the  soil 
in  can  No.  i  is  dry.    Weigh  again,  and  compare  with  (e). 

(A)  Carefully  dig  down  into  the  soil  of  each  can,  and 
measure  the  distance  from  the  surface  to  a  layer  of 
moist  soil.  Compare  these  distances.  In  which  can 
would  the  conditions  be  better  adapted  to  surface-feeding 
plants?  In  which  to  deep-feeding  plants?  Ilo7C' does 
the  water  escape  ?  Out  of  which  can  has  it  escaped 
most  slowly?  Most  rapidly?  Why?  In  which  can  the 
air  most  freely  enter  the  soil?  In  outdoor  soils  of  these 
three  conditions,  which  would  now  allow  the  water  to 
pass  into  it  least  freely  ?  Which  of  these  soils  represent 
a  rolled  soil  ?  Which  a  loosely  tilled  soil  ?  How  would 
a  rain  affect  each  of  these  soils  ?  Why  is  it  necessary  to 
till  the  soil  about  growing  plants  as  soon  as  possible 
after  a  rain  ?  What  is  the  condition  of  soil  in  the  field 
in  early  spring?  How 
does  early  spring  plow- 
ing affect  the  evapora- 
tion of  soil  moisture  ? 

(/)  Compare  these 
mulches,  and  record 
your  own  conclusions 
upon  the  teachings  of 
this  experiment. 

Tillage  for  surface- 
feeding  roots  may  be 
deep  when  the  plants 
are  quite  young,  but 
when  they  have  made 
considerable  growth  plowing  must  necessarily 
be  shallow  to  avoid  destroying  the  roots  (Fig. 
26),  which  sometimes  reach  from  row  to  row. 

Cultivation   should  not  be  repeated  until  the 


FIG.   26. TO  SHOW   THK  EFP"ECT  OF 

DEEP  AND  SHALLOW  PLOWING. 


74  AGRICULTURE. 

soil  is  reduced  to  too  fine  a  dust,  for  it  is  apt 
to  puddle  when  it  rains,  and  exclude  the  air. 
Tillage  also  keeps  down  the  weeds,  which  would 
rob  the  soil  of  plant-food  and  exclude  heat  and 
light. 

C— REFERENCES  FOR  CHAPTERS  I.,  II.,  AND  III. 

"  Systems  of  Farm  Management  in  the  United  States."  Year- 
book, 1902. 

"  The  Movement  and  Retention  of  Water  in  Soils." 

"Some  Interesting  Soil  Problems."     Year-book.  i8(,7. 

"  Origin,  Value,  and  Reclamation  of  Alkali  Lands."  Year- 
book, 1895. 

"  Reasons  for  Cultivating  the  Soil."     Year-book,  1S95. 

"  Irrigation  for  the  Garden  and  Greenhouse."  Year-book, 
1895. 

"Soil  Investigations  in  the  United  States."     Year-book,  1899. 

"Some  Important  Soil  P'ormations."  Hulletin  f,,  1S96,  Division 
of  Agricultural  Soils,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"Soil  Solutions."  Bulletin  17,  Division  of  Soils,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

"  Instruction  in  Agronomy  at  Some  Agricultural  Colleges." 
Bulletin  127,  Office  of  Experiment  Station,  United  States  Depart- 
ment. 

"  Bulletin  41,  1893,"  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station. 

"  The  Soil."     King.      1900.      10. 

"  Soils  and  Crops."     Morrow  &  Hunt.      1902.     4. 

"  Manual  of  Geology."     Dana.     1S95. 

"  Physical  Geography."     Gilbert  &  Brigham.      1902.     i. 

"  An  Introduction  to  Geology."     Scott.     1897.      10. 

"  Geology."     Brigham.     i. 


OUTLINE    OF    CHAPTER    IV. 

THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS. 

^.— USES    OF    THE    SOIL  TO    PLANTS. 
I.  It  Serves  as  a  Foothold. 
II.  It  Affords  Plant-food. 

III.  It  Acts  as  a  Storehouse  for  Water. 

IV.  It  Retains  and  Regulates  the  Heat. 

V.  It  Serves  as  a  Habitation  for  Soil  Bacteria 

i5.— CONSTITUENTS    OF    PLANTS. 

I.  Chemical  Analysis  of  Plants. 

II.  Sources  of  Plant-food. 

1.  Ah'-derived  Elements. 

(i)  Carbon. 

(2)  Oxygen. 

(3)  Hydrogen. 

(4)  Nitrogen. 

2.  Soil-derived  Elements. 

(i)   Phosphorus. 
(2)   Potassium. 

C.-FERTILITY    OF    THE    SOIL. 
I.  Chemical  Analysis  of  Soils. 

II.  Vegetation  Experiments. 

III.  Fertilization  of  the  Soil. 

I.    Commercial  Fertilizers. 

(i)  Nitrogenous  Compounds. 
(2)  Phosphorous  Compounds. 


7'; 


76  AGRICULTURE. 

(3)  Potassium  Compounds. 

(4)  Table  of  Fertilizing  Materials. 

(5)  Lime.     Exercise  4. 
2.   Stable  Compost. 

(i)  Value  in  Furnishing  Plant-food. 

(2)  Shameful  Waste. 

(3)  Effects  Upon  the  Soil. 

(4)  Protection  and  Application  of  the  Com- 

post. 

Z>.— REFERENCES. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS. 

^.— USES  OF  THE  SOIL  TO  PLANTS. 

I.  The  Soil  Serves  as  a  Foothold. 

The  roots  penetrate  the  soil  and  brace  the 
plants  against  the  wind,  and  hold  them  erect  so 
that  they  more  readily  obtain  air  and  light. 
The  necessity  for  this  support  is  made  greater 
by  the  elongation  of  the  stem  in  the  struggle  for 
light. 

II.  It  Affords  Important  Food  Elements. 

Although  but  5  per  cent,  of  the  food  supply  of 
plants  is  obtained  from  the  soil,  it  does  not  fol- 
low that  this  5  per  cent,  may  be  omitted.  On 
the  contrary,  many  of  the  soil-furnished  ele- 
ments are  absolutely  necessary  to  the  life  and 
development  of  plants. 

III.  The  Soil  Acts  as  a  Storehouse  for  Water, 

so  that  the  plant  may  draw  upon  its  supply  con- 
tinuously, or  much  more  nearly  so  than  if  it  de- 
pended only  upon  the  moisture  obtained  from 
the  air  and  from  that  obtained  for  immediate 
use  from  rains.  This  soil  water  is  invaluable 
both  as  a  food  and  as  a  solvent  for  other  con- 
stituents of  plant-food,  since  plants  can  only 
take  up  substances  which  are  soluble  in  the  soil 

77 


78  AGRICULTURE. 

water  (which  usually  contains  organic  acids),  or 
which  may  be  rendered  soluble  by  the  acid  reac- 
tion of  the  roots. 

IV.  It  Tends  to  Retain   and  Regulate  the    Heat 

of  the  sun,  and  transform  it  into  energy  which 
plants  can  use. 

V.  It  Serves  as  a  Habitation  for  Soil  Bacteria, 

which  transforms  the  unavailable  free  nitrogen  of 
the  air  into  nitrates  available  for  the  use  of  plants. 

^.—CONSTITUENTS  OF  PLANTS. 

I.  Chemical  Analysis  of  Plants. 

Many  analyses  of  the  tissues  of  different 
plants  have  been  made  (though  by  no  means  of 
all  plants),  and  through  these  analyses  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  one  plant  may  contain 
certain  compounds — or  particular  combinations 
of  these  elements — which  do  not  exist  in  some 
other  plants.  These  analyses  show  that  all 
plants  are  essentially  made  up  of  fourteen  ele- 
ments, or  about  that   number. 

II.  Sources  of  Plant-food. 

Four  of  these  elements — carbon,  oxygen,  hy- 
drogen, and  nitrogen — are  obtained  directl)-  or 
indirectly  from  the  air,  while  the  soil  must  sup- 
ply the  remaining  ten  elements  :  iron,  calcium, 
silicon,  chlorine,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  potas- 
sium, sodium,  magnesium,  and  manganese.  The 
food  elements  obtained  from   the    soil   are  the 


THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS.       79 

more  numerous,  but  they  form  a  very  slnall  per 
cent,  of  the  quantity  of  plant  tissues  (not  over 
four  or  five  per  cent,  altogether),  while  the  ele- 
ments obtained  indirectly  or  directly  from  the 
air  form  95  per  cent,  or  more  of  the  quantity. 

I.  Air-derived  Elements. 

(i  )  Carbon. — Nearly  half  of  the  solid  mate- 
rial of  plants  is  carbon.  It  is  found  in  the  oils, 
starch,  sugar,  and  albuminoids.;};  The  leaves  take 
in  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air  and  decompose 
it  (in  the  light)  into  its  elements,  carbon  and 
oxygen,  building  up  other  compounds  with  the 
carbon  and  giving  off  the  greater  part  of  the 
oxygen. 

(2)  Oxygen  too  may  be  directly  taken  from 
the  air  by  leaves,  buds,  and  flowers,  or  by  the 
roots.  It  is  also  taken  in  in  large  quantities  in 
the  water  absorbed.  Oxygen  forms  a  part  of 
nearly  all  the  compounds  found  in  plants. 

(3)  Hydrogen,  in  combination  with  oxygen 
forming  water,  is  an  important  element  in 
plants=  There  is  no  other  compound  so  abun- 
dant in  plants  as  that  of  water,  and  none  whose 
function  is  more  important,  since  it  holds  in  so- 
lution other  elements,  or  compounds,  of  plant- 
foods,  and  acts  as  a  medium  for  transporting 
them  to  every  tissue  and  cell  of  the  plant. 

(4)  Nitrogen  is  an  essential  element  in  all  the 
green  and  woody  parts  of  plants — in  fact,  of  all 
the  protoplasm,  or  living  substance,  of  the  plant. 


so 


AGRICULTURE. 


Insufficient  available  nitrogen.  Sufficient  available  nitrogen. 

FIG.    27. — SHOWING    EFFECT    OK    NITRATE. 

It  promotes  vegetative  growth  rather  than  fruit- 
fulness.  The  presence  of  sufficient  nitrogen 
available*  to  the  plant — unless  counteracted  by 
some  phosphate — is  manifested  by  the  vigor 
and  deep  green  color  of  the  leaf,  with  possibly 
retarded  flowers  and  fruit,  while  the  lack  of 
available  nitrogen  is  shown  by  scanty  and  pale 
foliage.     The  quantity  available  greatly  affects 

*  Avnilahlc  plant-food  \i  in  such  form  that  the    plants  can  and 
will  use  it. 


THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS.  81 

the  amount  of  nitrogen  stored  up  in  the  plant, 
and  thus  the  access  or  lack  of  available  nitrogen 
largely  modifies  the  nutritive  value  of  the  plant 
as  food  for  animals. 

Four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere  is  composed  of 
this  element  so  important  to  plant  life,  but  most 
plants  can  be  supplied  root  and  branch  with  an 
abundance  of  nitrogen  gas  and  yet  starve  for 
the  want  of  nitrogen  ;  for  no  green  plants  can 
take  in  free  nitrogen.  It  must  be  combined 
with  other  elements  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
form  compounds  soluble  in  the  soil  water,  so 
that  it  may  be  taken  up  by  the  roots.*  The 
nitrates  and  ammonium  salts  are  such  com- 
pounds. There  are  certain  kinds  of  plants 
which  are  intimately  connected  with  particular 
forms  of  bacteria.  This  relation  f  is  mutually 
beneficial.  The  bacteria  work  upon  the  roots 
of  the  plants,  forming  nodules  (Fig.  28),  and 
in  turn  convert  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  in 
the  soil  into  soluble  nitrates  for  the  use  of  the 
plant  hosts.  II 

Since  most  plants  do  not  have  access  to  the 
exhaustless  supply  of  nitrogen  afforded  by  the 
air,  and  there  is  only  a  small  per  cent,  of  avail- 
able nitrogen  in  ordinary  soil,  and  since  nitrogen 

*  ' '  Some  plants  absorb  through  their  leaves  a  very  small  per  cent. 
!)f  ammonia  directly  from  the  air." — Year-book,  United  .States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  1901. 

f  Symbiosis. 

II  See  "  Leguminous  Plants." 


82  AGRICULTURE. 

is  SO  essential  to  plant  growth,  it  must  be  sup- 
plied in  some  other  way.  This  phase  of  the 
subject  will  be  further  discussed  under  "  Fertil- 
izers." 

All  of  the  food  elements  obtained  from  the 
air,  except  nitrogen,  are  directly  available  from 
that  source,  so  need  no  further  mention. 

2.   Soil-derived  Elements. 

Of  the  ten  elements  obtained  from  the  soil, 
all  except  phosphorus,  potassium,  and  lime  are 
present  in  sufficient  quantities,  and  in  such  form 
as  to  supply  the  needs  of  plants,  except  in 
special  cases. 

(i)  Phosphorus. — It  has  been  proven  by  re- 
peated experiments  that  phosphorus  in  the  form 
of  phosphates  "'^  is  essential  to  the  healthy  de- 
velopment of  plants.  Growth  cannot  take  place 
without  the  presence,  of  phosphorus  in  the 
nucleus  of  the  cells.  It  helps  in  the  assimila- 
tion of  other  food,  induces  seed-formation  and 
the  maturity  of  the  plant,  and  assists  in  trans- 
ferring the  albuminoids  to  the  seed. 

The  presence  of  phosphorus  in  an  available 
form,  if  uncounteracted,  is  manifested  by  early 
maturity  and  plump,  well-filled  seeds.  Ordinary 
soils  are  in  time  impoverished  of  the  natural 
supply  of  available  phosphates  unless  a  portion 

*  "  It  has  been  well  established  that  the  salts  of  phosphoric 
acid — ox  phosphates — are  the  only  source  from  which  phosphorus 
of  plants  can  be  derived." — Bulletin  94,  Maryland  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 


FIG.   28.— TUBERCLES  ON  VELVET   13EAN  I'RODUCEU  UY  INOCULATION. 


83 


84  AGRICULTURE. 

of  that  taken  up  by  repeated  crops,  particularly 
of  grain,  is  in  some  way  returned  to  the  soil, 
This  plant-food  (phosphate)  also  will  be  further 
discussed  under  "Fertilizers." 

(2)  Potassium. — Pure  potassium  is  a  silvery 
white  metal,  but  it  does  not  exist  in  nature  un- 
combined  with  other  elements.  Potassium  com- 
pounds are  important  ingredients  in  the  forma- 
tion of  starch  in  the  leaves  and  the  transference 
of  starch  to  the  fruit.  Since  starch  is  so  impor- 
tant in  the  formation  of  wood,  it  follows  that 
the  salts  of  potassium  are  essential  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  firm,  woody  tissue  of  the  stems. 
Potassium  forms  the  base  of  the  acids  of  fruits 
and  over  half  the  ash  of  fruits.  It  is  particularly 
necessary  to  fruit  and  root  crops.  It  is  also 
found  in  the  juices  of  plants  which  are  somewhat 
acid,  where  it  neutralizes  a  part  of  such  acids — 
as,  citric,  tartaric,  and  oxalic — by  forming  the 
salts  of  these  acids.  Potassium  forms  a  large 
per  cent,  of  the  wood  of  fruit-trees. 

C— FERTILITY  OF  THE  SOIL. 

A  fertile  soil  "contains  all  the  material  req- 
uisite for  the  nutrition  of  plants  in  the  required 
quantity  and  in  the  proper  form."  That  is,  all 
the  materials  for  the  nutrition  of  plants  not  de- 
rived from  the  air  are  contained  in  a  fertile 
soil. 

One  must  know  whether  the  food  elements 


THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS.  85 

of  the  desired  crop  are  present  in  the  soil.  This 
question  can  be  answered  by  chemical  analyses 
of  plants  and  of  soils. 

I.  Chemical  Analysis  of  Soils. 

If  the  required  elements  for  a  certain  crop 
are  not  present  in  the  soil  they  must  be  sup- 
plied by  a  fertilizer,  or  some  other  crop  sown. 

But  if  chemical  analysis  does  show  the  neces- 
sary elements  to  be  present,  it  does  not  satis- 
factorily answer  the  question  as  to  whether  that 
food  is  available  for  the  use  of  the  plant ;  that 
is,  whether  conditions  are  such  that  the  plant 
can  and  will  use  this  food. 

As  has  already  been  shown,  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  rock  from  which  the  soil 
is  obtained,  the  texture,  drainage,  temperature, 
tillage,  ventilation,  and  water  content  of  the 
soil — which  determine  the  delicate  and  little- 
understood  life  processes  of  the  plant — all  are 
factors  in  the  productiveness  of  the  soil. 

There  are  so  many  conditions,  then,  that  enter 
into  the  productiveness  of  the  soil  which  chem- 
ical analysis  cannot  take  into  account  that  it  is 
generally  of  little  practical  use  to  the  farmer. 

II.  Vegetation  Experiments. 

These  are  of  much  value  in  determining  just 
what  fertilizer  is  needed,  but  they  require  time. 
If,  however,  the  farmer  will  do  as  the  United 
States    Department    of      Agriculture    advises, 


86  AGRICULTURE. 

"make  his  farm  an  experiment  station,"  he  can 
solve  these  problems  from  year  to  year  without 
much  loss  of  time  and  land,  and  with  great 
profit. 

The  food  elements  most  apt  to  be  lacking  in 
ordinary  soils  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and 
potassium.  The  appearance  of  the  plants  (see 
page  80)  often  indicates  their  specific  needs. 
But  one  may  find  out  more  definitely  by  apply- 
ing one  kind  of  fertilizer — as,  sulphate  of  potash 
— to  one  plot  of  a  field,  and  another  kind  of  fer- 
tilizer— as,  sodium  nitrate  or  superphosphate  of 
lime — to  another  plot,  and  a  complete  fertilizer, 
or  mixture  of  the  three  (see  page  94),  upon  a 
third  plot,  and  comparing  results  carefully  with 
those  of  a  plot  to  which  no  fertilizer  has  been 
added.  The  next  year  the  whole  field  may  be 
treated  with  the  particular  fertilizer  which  the 
results  of  these  experiments  show  is  needed.  If 
other  conditions  are  right  a  heavy  yield  may  be  ex- 
pected. These  experiments  may  show  the  need  of 
one  or  of  all  three  of  the  fertilizers — nitrate,  phos- 
phate, or  potash  ;  or  it  may  be  that  none  of  them 
increase  the  yield,  when  one  must  look  to  other 
conditions  of  soil,  or  plant,  to  solve  the  difficulty. 

III.  Fertilization  of  the  Soil. 

I .    Commercial  Fertilizers, 
(i)    NiTROGEXOus    Compounds. — The    nitro- 
genous compounds  used  as  commercial  fertilizers 


THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS.  87 

are  obtained  from  animal,  mineral,  and  vegetable 
sources,  but  the  source  of  fertilizers  has  nothing 
whatever  to  do  with  their  value  as  such.  The 
value  depends  upon  the  form  in  which  a  fer- 
tilizer contains  the  particular  plant-food  desired. 
The  nitrogen,  if  wanted  for  the  immediate  use 
of  the  plant,  is  best  in  the  form  of  a  nitrate, 
since  it  is  soluble,  and  may  be  better  distributed 
through  the  soil  to  the  feeding  roots,  and  is 
readily  taken  up  by  them. 

Ammonia  is  the  next  nitrogeneous  plant-food 
in  order  as  regards  availability.  Some  plants 
can  use  ammonium  salts,  which  are  soluble  in 
water,  and  thus  are  easily  distributed  through- 
out the  soil  to  the  roots.  As  a  rule,  however, 
the  salts  of  ammonia  are  changed  into  nitrates 
(see  "Nitrifying  Bacteria  "),  which  is  done  very 
rapidly  in  the  soil  before  being  used  by  plants. 

Anhnal  or  vegetable  prod2icts  cannot  furnish 
available  nitrogen  to  plants  until  decomposition 
takes  place;  hence  the  more  rapid  the  decay  of 
an  organic  fertilizer  the  more  readily  available 
is  its  nitrogen,  since  it  must  first  be  converted 
into  ammonia  and  then  into  nitrates.  (See 
"  Nitrifying  Bacteria.") 

Among  the  fertilizers  of  animal  origin,  which 
are  largely  used  on  account  of  their  rapid  decay 
and  comparative  inexpensiveness,  are :  dried 
blood,  dried  meat  and  fish, -hoof-meal,  and  guano. 
Others — as,  wool,  hair,  and  leather — decay  more 


88  AGRICULTURE. 

slowly,  and  hence  the  nitrogen  is  very  slowly 
available. 

One  of  the  best  vegetable  nitrogenous  fertil- 
izers is  cottonseed-meal.  It  is  largely  used  in 
the  South,  but  its  usefulness  as  a  food  for  cattle 
makes  it  too  expensive,  in  many  cases,  for  a  fer- 
tilizer. Castor  pomace,  obtained  as  a  waste 
product  in  extracting  the  oil  from  the  castor 
bean,  is  of  no  value  as  a  food,  and  decays 
rapidly  in  the  soil,  hence  makes  a  useful  and  in- 
expensive fertilizer,  though  it  contains  only 
about  one-half  as  great  a  per  cent,  of  nitrogen 
as  chemically  pure  sodium  nitrate. 

Mineral  Sources.— Soluble  nitrate  is  com- 
monly obtained  as  nitrate  of  soda,  or  "Chile 
saltpeter,"  which  is  found  in  deposits  in  the  rain- 
less regions  of  the  Peruvian  coast.  It  contains 
a  large  per  cent,  of  common  salt,  but  when 
purified,  as  prepared  for  commerce,  it  is  95 
per  cent.,  or  more,  pure  sodium  nitrate 
(NaN03),  and  about  15  or  16  per  cent,  of  this  is 
nitrogen. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia,  (NH^)2SO,,  is  formed 
from  coal  as  waste  material  in  the  manufacture 
of  gas  and  coke,  also  from  the  dry  distillation 
of  animal  bone  in  the  making  of  bone-black. 
It  generally  contains  about  20  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen,  making  it  the  richest  in  nitrogen  of 
any  of  the  commercial  fertilizers.  It  is  quick 
to  act,  and  is  readily  distributed  in  the  soil,  and, 


THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS.  89 

considering  its  concentrated  form,  is  compara- 
tively inexpensive. 

(2)  Phosphorous  Compounds.  —  The  com- 
pounds of  phosphorus  with  lime,  magnesia,  iron, 
and  alumina  are  widely  distributed  in  the  soils, 
but  they  are  insoluble  in  water,  and  hence  are 
so  slowly  available  as  to  be  insufficient  to  fur- 
nish the  necessary  supply  for  repeated  crops. 

Phosphate  of  lime  is  the  compound  used  most 
in  the  manufacture  of  commercial  fertilizers. 
The  mineral  or  rock  calcium  phosphate,  or  ani- 
mal phosphates — as,  bone-black  and  bone-ash,  or 
animal  bone — is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid 
(H2SO4),  in  order  to  render  the  insoluble  tri- 
calcium  phosphate,  Ca3(POj2>  soluble.  The  sol- 
uble phosphate  made  from  the  bone-black  or 
bone  ash  is  best,  because  more  of  the  phosphate 
may  be  converted  into  a  soluble  form.  It  makes 
a  fine,  dry,  easily  handled  fertilizer.  The  insol- 
uble, or  tri-calcium  phosphate,  is  treated  with 
sulphuric  acid,  and  a  large  per  cent,  of  it  is 
rendered  soluble  by  two  parts  of  the  lime 
uniting  with  the  sulphuric  acid  to  form  gypsum 
(2CaSOJ.  This  mixture  of  gypsum  ""  and  the 
soluble  phosphate  (mono-calcium  phosphate)  is 
sold  as  a  fertilizer  under  the  name  of  super- 
phosphate of  lime.  It  is  probable  also  that 
some  of  the  tri-calcium  phosphate  loses  only 
one    part  of  the   lime  and  becomes  di-calciuni 

*  Remsen's  Inorganic  Chemistry,  p.  328. 


90  AGRICULTURE. 

phosphate,  which  is  not  soluble  in  pure  water, 
but  is  soluble  in  the  acid  soil  waters  and  the 
acids  exuded  by  the  rootlets,  and  is,  therefore, 
available  to  plants.  So  that  the  mono-calcium 
and  di-calcium  phosphates  contained  in  a  com- 
mercial fertilizer  together  are  called  the  "  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid"  (see  Table).  Mono-cal- 
cium phosphate  is  immediately  available  to 
plants,  and  will  give  quick  returns ;  but  that 
which  remains  in  the  soil  changes  to  the  di-cal- 
cium, or  reverted  form,  which  is  precipitated  as 
a  fine  powder,  and  is  easily  dissolved  through 
the  acid  reaction  of  the  roots. 

The  supply  for  manufacturing  these  fertilizers 
comes  largely  from  South  Carolina,  which  has, 
perhaps,  the  richest  deposits  of  rock  phosphates 
in  the  world.  Other  valuable  deposits  are  found 
in  Florida,  consisting  not  only  of  phosphates  of 
lime,  but  also  of  phosphates  of  iron  and  alumina. 
Still  others  are  found  in  Tennessee,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Virginia. 

Bone-black  is  obtained  by  heating  animal 
bones  in  the  absence  of  air,  when  the  gases  and 
oily  matters  are  driven  off,  and  charred  bone  or 
bone  charcoal  is  left.  This  is  used  for  refining 
sugar ;  when  it  is  of  no  further  use  for  this  pur- 
pose it  is  sold  as  a  fertilizer.  In  this  form, 
however,  it  is  slowly  soluble,  and  of  little  prac- 
tical value.  When  bone-black  is  treated  with 
sulphuric  acid  a  much  greater  per  cent,  of  sol- 


THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS.  91 

uble  phosphate  Is  found  than  when  the  mineral, 
or  rock  phosphate,  is  thus  treated.  In  this  form 
it  is  called  "dissolved  bone-black,"  and  is  a  val- 
uable fertilizer. 

Other  commercial  fertilizers  containing  phos- 
phorus, with  their  comparative  values,  are  given 
in  the  table. 

(3)  Potassium  Compounds. — The  potassium 
in  the  soil  is  largely  in  the  form  of  insoluble  sili- 
cates. The  potassium  salts  of  mineral  origin 
used  as  commercial  fertilizers  are  nearly  all  ob- 
tained from  German  mines;  those  most  common 
are  the  sulphate,  muriate,  and  kainit — a  mixture 
of  several  salts,  as  sodium,  potassium,  and  mag- 
nesium sulphates  and  muriates.  All  of  these 
are  available  for  the  use  of  the  plant,  since  they 
are  soluble  in  water.  Pure  potassium  sulphate 
contains  about  54  per  cent,  of  potassium  oxide, 
but  the  composition  of  the  commercial  article 
varies,  some  grades  containing  not  more  than 
30  per  cent.  The  muriate  of  potassium  (KCl) 
of  commerce  contains  about  52  per  cent,  of 
potassium. 

Ashes  resulting  from  burning  wood,  cotton- 
seed hulls,  and  tobacco  stems  contain  from  5 
to  30  per  cent,  of  potassium  carbonate.  The 
amount  of  potassium  carbonate  (K2CO3)  in  ashes 
depends  upon  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  wood, 
the  intensity  of  the  heat  in  burning,  and  their 
protection  from  moisture.     Ashes  also  contain 


92 


AGRICULTURE. 


from  I  to  4  per  cent,  of  phosphates,  and  from 
30  to  40  per  cent,  of  calcium  carbonate.  Good 
wood  ashes  not  only  furnish  available  plant-food, 
but  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 
Coal  ashes  are  of  no  use  as  a  fertilizer. 


(4)    TABLE  I. 

SHOWING   THE   COMPOSITION   OF   SOME   OF   THE 

PRINCIPAL,  COMMERCIAL,  FERTII^IZING  MATERIAI^S.* 


CONSTITUENT. 

1 

«5 

.S 

1.  Supplying  Nitrogen. 

Per 
cent. 

15.5-16 

19.0-20.5 

12.0-14 

lO.O-Il 

5.0-6 

Per 
cent. 

Per 
cent. 

Per 

cent. 

Per 
cent. 

Per 
cent. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  .   . 

Dried  blood  (high  grade)  . 

Dried  blood  ( low  grade)  . 

Castor  pomace 

2.  Supplying  Phosphoric 
Acid. 

Bone-black    superphos- 
phate (dissolved  bone- 
black)    .   .          .       ... 

3-0-5 
1. 0-1.5 

17-18 
20-25 
22-29 
15-17 

15-17 

6-9 
13-15 

1-  2 

15-17 
16-20 

2-  3 

.    1-1.5    . 

2.5-  4.5 
1.5-  2.5 
2.0-  3 

3.  Supplying  Potash 

50 

48-52 
12-12. 5 

2-8 

1-2 

5-8 

45-48 

•5-1.5 
30-32 

Sulphate  of  potash  (high 

Kainit 

1-2 

1-1-5 

3-5 

2.0-  3 

The  above  table  shows  the  comparative 
values  of  the  most  important  commercial  fertil- 
izers as  food  for  plants.     The  amount  of  these 


Adapted  from   Year-lwol',  IQ02,  p.  571. 


THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS.  93 

fertilizers  required  varies  upon    different    soils 
and  for  different  plants.* 

The  smallest  amounts  of  direct  fertilizers  to 
the  acre,  which  will  give  satisfactory  returns,  are 
lo  pounds  of  nitrogen,  15  pounds  of  available 
phosphoric  acid,  and  20  pounds  of  potash.  By 
comparison  with  the  above  table  the  amount  of 
the  commercial  fertilizer  required  may  be  ob- 
tained. 

Exercise  3. — How  much  nitrate  of  soda  will  be  needed 
for  an  acre  if  10  pounds  of  nitrogen  be  required?  (See 
Table  I.) 

How  much  sulphate  of  ammonia? 

How  much  dried  blood  (high  grade)? 

How  many  pounds  of  tobacco  stems? 

How  many  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  of  potash 
in  tobacco  stems  which  burnishes  10  pounds  of  nitrogen? 

How  many  pounds  of  bone-black  superphosphate  will 
it  take  to  furnish  15  pounds  of  available  phosphoric  acid? 
How  many  pounds  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  will 
this  bone-black  contain  ? 

How  many  pounds  of  sulphate  of  potash  will  it  take 
to  furnish  20  pounds  of  potash?  How  much  kainit  ? 
How  much  (unleached)  wood  ashes?  How  much  phos- 
phoric acid  contained  in  the  wood  ashes  ? 

For  indoor  plants,  again,  the  amount  of  the 
fertilizer  must  be  governed  by  the  kind  of  soil 
and  species  of  plant,  for  what  is  a  "balanced 
ration  "  \  for  one  kind  of  plant  is  not  for  another. 

*"  It  is  unsafe  to  use  chemical  fertilizers  or  liquid  manures  in 
full  strength  on  a  heavy  soil,  which  is  not  provided  with  suffi- 
cient fibrous  material." — Year-book,  1902,  p.  558. 


94  AGRICULTURE. 

The  following  estimate  *  may  be  helpful,  but 
practical  experience  is  the  only  safe  guide  as  to 
which  plant-food  and  how  much  is  needed : 
Nitrate  of  soda,  6  to  lo  ounces,  in  50  gallons  of 
water  to  100  square  feet;t  sulphate,  or  muriate, 
of  potash,  8  to  12  ounces  in  50  gallons  of  water 
to  100  square  feet,  or  wood  ashes,  5  pounds  to 
100  square  feet;  calcium  superphosphate,  i 
pound  in  50  gallons  of  water  to  100  square 
feet.  Whichever  fertilizer  is  needed  should  be 
used  every  ten  days,  or  two  weeks,  in  watering 
the  plants. 

For  mixed,  or  so-called  "complete  fertilizer," 
Voorhees  ||  recommends  one-fourth  pound  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  one  pound  acid  phosphate,  and 
one-half  pound  of  muriate  of  potash  for  100 
square  feet.  But  some  think  this  a  little  too 
much.     (See  also  "Plant  Improvement.") 

The  kind  of  fertilizer,  as  to  its  slow  or  rapid 
availability,  to  be  used  depends  upon  whether 
the  object  desired  is  to  slightly  enrich  the  soil 
for  a  period  of  years  or  to  increase  the  yield  of 
the  immediate  crop. 

The  time  of  application  would  depend  upon 
the  kind  of  fertilizer  and  the  object  of  its  use. 


*  This  estimate  was  given  for  roses  in  the  Year-hook,  1902,  and 
is  meant  only  as  an  example. 

f  "  After  the  second  or  third  application,  a  dressing  of  lime — 
5  lbs.  to  100  square  feet — may  follow." — Year-book,  iyo2,  p.  557. 

\Fertilizcrs,  by  Voorhees,  p.  327. 


THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS.      95 

If  wanted  for  the  immediate  use  of  the  plant,  it 
must  necessarily  be  soluble,  and,  consequently, 
should  not  be  applied  in  the  fall  but  in  the 
spring,  when  the  crop  is  ready  to  use  it,  else  it 
will  be  leached  away  and  lost.  If  the  more 
slowly  available  ones  are  used,  they  should  be 
applied  in  the  fall. 

How  Applied. — Fertilizers  must  be  evenly 
and  thoroughly  distributed  in  the  soil.  For  this 
reason  it  is  well  to  mix  concentrated  fertilizers 
with  dust,  ashes,  or  sand.  They  may  then  be 
scattered  broadcast,  and  plowed  or  harrowed  in, 
or  drilled  in.  Those  which  are  readily  soluble 
may  be  simply  distributed  over  the  surface,  as 
the  rains  will  carry  them   into  the   soil. 

When  should  commercial  fertilizers  be  used? 
Not  until  all  home  resources  are  exhatcsted 
should  a  farmer  buy  fertilizers.  Proper  prepara- 
ation  of  the  soil  by  drainage  and  tillage,  attention 
to  rotation  of  crops,  taking  care  that  legumi- 
nous plants  constitute  at  least  one  crop  in  four, 
so  that  particular  elements  will  not  be  exhausted 
by  continuous  drain  upon  them,  will  do  much 
toward  keeping  up  the  yield  afforded  by  the 
soil.  But  this  is  not  enough  ;  all  must  not  be 
taken  out  and  nothing  put  in.  However,  if  all 
waste  products  on  the  farm  are  utilized,  there 
will  be  little  need  of  expending  much  money  for 
commercial  fertilizers. 

(5)   Lime. — Plants    need    lime.      It    tends    to 


96  AGRICULTURE. 

make  them  more  compact;  and  aids  in  the  pro- 
duction of  grain  or  fruit.  Especially  is  it  helpful 
to  leguminous  plants,  grains,  and  grasses  ;  but 
it  is  of  much  less  value  to  corn,  and  may  be 
even  injurious  to  potatoes,  blackberries,  redtop, 
and  millet.  Lime  neutralizes  part  of  the  acid 
in  plants  forming  salts,  as  the  calcium  oxalate 
of  beet  leaves ;  but  its  most  important  action  is 
that  of  an  hidirect  fertilizer.  It  benefits  the 
soil  as  to  its  physical  condition,  tending  to  make 
clayey  soils  more  porous  and  light,  and  sandy 
soils  more  compact. 

Lime  changes  the  chemical  constituents  of 
the  soil.  It  is  in  this  action  that  it  brings  an 
increased  yield  to  the  immediate  crop ;  for  by 
chemical  action  upon  organic  matter,  hastening 
its  decomposition,  and  upon  the  insoluble  potas- 
sium and  phosphorus  compounds  in  the  soil,  it 
renders  them  available  to  the  plant.  While  this 
would  tend  to  produce  heavier  crops,  the  con- 
tinued use  of  lime,  or  gypsum,  would  help  to 
exhaust  the  soil  of  its  natural  plant-food  by  the 
increased  drain  made  upon  it  through  the  greater 
yield. 

Lime  neutralizes  the  acidity  of  the  soil. 
Through  root-action  of  some  plants,  or  through 
the  formation  of  acids  by  the  decomposition  of 
organic  matter  and  consequent  formation  of 
humous  and  humic  acids,  or  through  the  exces- 
sive use  of  fertilizers,  or  by  leaching,  the  soil 


THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS.  97 

may  become  so  strongly  acid  in  its  character  as 
to  be  unfavorable  or  unproductive  to  certain 
valuable  species  of  plants.  This  condition  may 
exist  not  only  on  swampy  or  peaty  soils,  but 
also  upon  well-drained  soils.  Soil  may  be  easily 
tested  for  acid  by  thoroughly  moistening  it  and 
placing  in  it  a  strip  of  blue  litmus  paper.  If  the 
color  of  the  litmus  paper  is  changed  to  red  the 
acid  of  the  soil  is  too  strong  for  plant  growth, 
and  the  addition  of  lime  will  prove  beneficial. 

Another  way  in  which  the  need  of  lime  in  a 
soil  in  shown  is  by  the  plants  which  it  will  nat- 
urally produce.  Plants  known  to  be  character- 
istic of  acid  soils  are  :  bird's-foot  violet  (  Viola 
pedata),  wild  or  beard  grass  (^And^^opogon  scopa- 
rius),  wood-rush  (^Luzula  campestris),  and,  as 
soon  as  the  soil  is  cultivated,  the  common  sorrel 
[Rumex  aceloselld),  while  those  plants  which  are 
unable  to  make  any  satisfactory  growth  upon 
such  soils  are  the  red  clover,  lettuce,  beets,  tim- 
othy, and  spinach.* 

Exercise  4. — [a)  Collect  small  samples  of  soil  from 
various  places  where  the  vegetation  might  lead  one  to 
suspect  the  presence  of  acid  soil. 

{b)  These  samples  of  soil  should  be  taken  from  about 
two  to  four  inches  below  the  surface,  and  each  sample 
carefully  labeled  as  to  exact  location  from  which  it  was 
obtained. 

{c)  These  samples  should  be  taken  to  the  laboratory, 

*  Roberts'  Fertility  0/ the  Soil,  p   ^if. 


98  AGRICULTURE. 

and  tested  for  acid  w'th  blue  litmus  paper.  If  need  be, 
leave  the  litmus  paper  covered  in  the  soil  over  night. 

(</)  If  any  soils  turn  the  litmus  paper  red.  the  class 
should  visit  that  particular  place,  or  places,  where  the 
acid  soils  were  found,  and  study  the  vegetation,  making 
a  list  of  the  plants  found  growing  there,  and  examine 
the  conditions,  to  discover,  if  possible,  the  cause  of  the 
acidity.  Is  the  drainage  good  ?  The  ventilation  ?  Is 
the  place  densely  shaded  ?  What  is  the  texture  of  the 
soil  "■  Is  it  a  humous,  loamy,  clayey,  or  sandy  soil  ? 
Could  the  conditions  be  improved  ?     How  ? 

{e)  Collect  a  sufficient  quantity  to  fill  several  small 
pots  with  this  soil,  and  try  to  grow  some  plant  which  is 
averse  to  acid  soil — as,  clover,  lettuce,  or  timothy.  To 
one  pot  add  lime  in  small  but  definite  quantities,  thor- 
oughly mix,  and  let  stand  for  a  few  days.  Test  again 
with  litmus;  if  still  acid,  add  lime  until  the  litmus  is  no 
longer  affected,  and  then  try  to  grow  the  same  kind  of  a 
plant  as  in  the  pot  of  acid  soil,  starting  them  both  at 
the  same  time  and  keeping  them  under  similar  condi- 
tions. 

(/)  Compare  the  growth  made  by  the  two  plants,  and 
record  your  observations  and  conclusions. 

Not  only  does  lime  sometimes  prove  benefi- 
cial to  plant  growth,  but  it  is  also  beneficial  to 
the  development  of  the  nitrifying  bacteria  of  the 
soil,  which  for  some  reason  thrive  best  in  a 
mildly  alkaline  soil  (see  "  Clover  Sick  Soil.") 
Lime  and  wood  ashes  aid  nitrification  by  fur- 
nishing calcium  and  potassium  to  unite  with  the 
nitric  acid  formed  by  the  bacteria.  Lime  is  also 
helpful  in  keeping  in  check  certain  injurious  in- 
sects and  fungi,  though  the  potato  scab  (a  fun- 


THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS.  99 

gous  growth)  seems  to  develop  more  rapidly 
when  this  crop  is  preceded  by  liming. 

One  form  of  calcium — the  sulphate,  called 
land  plaster  or  gypsum — fixes  ammonia,  while 
lime  drives  it  off.  Hence  this  is  exceedingly 
useful  for  sprinkling  in  the  trenches  of  stables, 
or  upon  the  surface  of  compost  heaps,  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  the  ammonia.  For  use  in  connec- 
tion with  manure,  no  other  form  but  the  sulphate 
(gypsum)  should  be  used.  It  is  also  best  for  an 
indirect  fertilizer — that  is,  for  rendering  the 
present  but  unavailable  plant-food  available. 

For  neutralizing  acids,  calcium  oxide  (CaO), 
or  quicklime,  is  the  best  form  to  use.  It  must 
be  slaked  a  short  time  before  using.  It  may  be 
placed  in  heaps  and  water  sprinkled  over  it,  and 
then  covered  with  soil  for  a  few  days.  It  should 
be  free  from  lumps,  spread  or  drilled  evenly, 
and  harrowed  in  at  once.  This  form  is  also  a 
cheap  and  very  good  indirect  fertilizer. 

Another  method  of  indirect  fertilizing  is  by 
the  judicious  use  of  cover  crops  (see  "  Legumin- 
ous Plants"  and  "  Rotation  of  Crops").  Plant 
roots  not  only  make  mineral  plant-foods  more 
easily  available,  but  prevent  them  from  being 
leached  out  by  the  winter  rains  and  snows. 

2.   Stable  Compost. 

As  has  been  said,  green  manuring  is  expensive, 
since  the  crop  may  be  fed  to  stock,  and  if  the 
stable  compost  is  properly  cared  for  and  returned 


100  AGRICULTURE. 

to  the  soil  a  large  per  cent,  of  the  important 
food  elements  taken  up  from  the  soil  by  the 
plants  will  be  restored  to  the  soil.  For  it  must 
be  remembered  that  this  compost  not  only  con- 
tains the  indigestible  food  elements,  but  also  the 
broken-down  or  worn  out  animal  tissues. 

(i)  Value  in  Furnishing  Plant-food. — 
The  amount  and  kind  of  the  elements  of  plant- 
food  found  in  stable  compost  depend  upon  the 
kind  of  food  *  fed  to  stock,  and  the  age  and 
kind  of  stock  to  which  it  is  fed,  and  the  care 
taken  of  the  compost.  Mature  animals  (except 
milch  cows)  return,  sooner  or  later,  nearly  all  of 
the  fertilizing  t  elements  of  the  food  in  the 
waste  discharged,  while  only  one-half  or  two- 
thirds  is  returned  by  young  and  rapidly  growing 
animals.  Fattening  cattle  return  from  85  to  90 
per  cent. 

Roberts  estimates  the  commercial  value  of 
the  fertilizing  materials  found  in  the  compost  of 
different  farm  animals  as  varying  from  $2.43  to 
^4.25  per  ton,  rating  the  nitrogen  contained  at 
15  cents,  phosphoric  acid  at  7^  cents,  and  potash 
at  45  cents  per  pound.  He  also  states  that  in 
many  cases  the  "  computed  value  of  the  waste 
is  nearly  one-half  the  cost  of  the  food  "  ;  but 
adds,  *'  this  value  can  seldom  be  realized  when 


•  See  Table,  p.  134. 

f  Henry's  Fffds  and  P\e(Iing,  p.  270. 


THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS.  101 

the  compost  is  applied  to  the  land."*  However, 
if  the  real  value  reaches  one-half  of  the  com- 
puted value  it  is  of  too  great  value  to  be  thrown 
away. 

(2)  Shameful  Waste. — The  way  in  which 
this  valuable  fertilizer  is  allowed  to  stand  ex- 
posed to  the  weather,  allowing  by  far  the  most 
valuable  elements  of  plant-food  to  be  leached 
out  and  drained  away  down  the  hillside,  only  to 
pollute  the  water  accessible  to  the  stock  or  to 
contaminate  the  air,  and  to  serve  as  a  breeding- 
place  for  flies  and  disease  germs,  is  shameful 
waste  if  not  criminal  carelessness. 

Many  farmers  allow  this  fertilizer  to  be 
hauled  away  to  increase  the  yield  of  the  crops 
of  a  more  thrifty  neighbor,  or  even  burn  it  to 
get  it  out  of  the  way.  And  this  in  the  face  of 
the  fact  that  there  is  no  more  vital  problem  in 
the  world  to-day  than  that  of  maintaining  or 
improving  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  As  popula- 
tion increases  this  question  assumes  momentous 
importance.  Already  in  the  "  old  world  "  it  is 
found  that  the  soil  is  not  able  to  supply  a  sub- 
sistence for  the  population.  All  the  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  shelter  for  all  animals,  including  man, 
must  come  directly  or  indirectly  from  the  soil. 
When  this  soil  is  exhausted  through  the  care- 
lessness of  man,  where  will  this  same  man 
appease  his  hunger  or  obtain  a  sustenance? 

*  Roberts'  Fertility  of  the  Land,  p.  143. 


102  AGRICULTURE. 

(3)  Effects  Upon  the  Soil. — Stable  compost 
not  only  enriches  the  soil  by  supplying  plant- 
food  (being  especially  rich  In  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds), but  it  very  materially  improves  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil.  It  changes  the 
potash,  phosphate,  and  lime  present  in  the  soil 
into  more  readily  available  forms,  and  favors 
the  development  of  the  nitrifying  bacteria.  The 
effects  of  stable  compost  are  more  lasting  than 
those  of  any  other  fertilizer  on  account  of  its 
uniting  with  the  elements  of  the  soil  to  form 
humates,  which  are  changed  to  available  forms 
by  the  nitrifying  bacteria.  The  liquid  in  stable 
compost  contains  valuable  plant-food  in  a  sol- 
uble form;  hence,  free  use  of  bedding  should  be 
made  to  absorb  and  retain  these  liquids.  A 
mixture  of  dried  muck;^  and  marlj  (when  easily 
obtained)  makes  a  good  absorbent,  and  will  prove 
beneficial  to  a  sandy  soil.  Gypsum  is  valuable 
in  fixing  the  ammonia  contained  in  these  liquids, 
and  should  be  sprinkled  in  the  trenches  or  over 
the  compost  heaps  for  this  purpose. 

(4)  Protection  and  Application  of  the 
Compost. — Covered  barn-yards  (Fig.  29)  pre- 
vent the  loss  of  the  compost  by  scattering  and 
leaching,*  at  the  same  time  affording  warmer 
quarters  for  the  stock  in  winter  and  cooler  in 
summer. 


Roberts'  Fertility  of  the  Soil* 


THE  SOIL  AS  RELATED  TO  PLANTS. 


103 


Some  successful  farmers  advocate  the  re- 
moval of  the  compost  from  the  stable  directly 
to  the  field.  Others  place  it  in  covered  heaps, 
or  bins,  and  sprinkle  with  gypsum.  Fresh  com- 
post acts  injuriously  with  some  crops.* 

Fairly  well-rotted  manure  may  be  harrowed 


1— ' 

■ 

m 

1 

^life^. 

J 

J 

HBflHEli: — . .  h^mM 

■H 

FIG.    2g. — A   COVERED   BARN-YARD. 

in  in  the  fall  or  late  summer,  but  if  sufficiently 
rotted  to  be  available,  it  may  l)e  applied  in  the 
spring-. 

Plants   may  be   overfed   as  well  as  underfed, 


Year-hook,  1901,  p.  171. 


104  AGRICULTURE. 

SO  frequent,  light  applications  are  better  than 
heavy  ones  at  long  intervals.* 

It  would  be  well  to  occasionally  add  to  every 
ton  of  compost  applied  to  the  soil  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  pounds  of  superphosphate,  and 
twenty-five  to  fifty  pounds  of  sulphate  of  potash 
(high  grade),  or  sufficient  wood  ashes  to  supply 
the  same  amount  of  potash  (see  Table  I.). 

For  potted  plants,  or  in  soil  used  for  vegetables 
or  flowers,  the  water  leached  from  stable  com- 
post and  diluted  may  be  used  (see  page  256)  in 
watering  the  plants  to  supply  the  fertilizer. 

One  ton  of  stable  compost  in  good  condition 
contains  about  ten  pounds  of  nitrogen,  five 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  ten  pounds  of 
potassium. 

Z>.— REFERENCES. 

"The  Fertility  of  the  Land."     Roberts.     1900.     10. 

"Fertilizers."     Voorhees.     1900.     10. 

"Phosphates."  Bulletin  94,  Maryland  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station. 

"  Field  Experiments  with  Nitrate  of  Soda."  Bulletin  164,  New 
Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"  System  of  Farm  Management."     Year-book,  1901. 

"  Relation  of  Nutrition  to  the  Health  of  Plants."  Year-book, 
1 90 1. 


*  "  We  may  take  it  as  a  general  rule  that  plants  with  leathery 
leaves,  with  hard  and  narrow  leaves,  and  with  hard  wood,  re- 
quire more  dilute  solutions  than  those  with  large,  soft,  and  ex- 
panded leaves.  During  the  period  of  leaf  formation  all  plants 
can  do  with  the  greatest  amount  of  nutritive  matter." — Year- 
book, 19CI,  p.  172. 


THE    SOIL    AS    RELATED    TO    PLANTS.  105 

"Soils."  Bulletin  41,  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station. 

"  Chemistry  of  Plants,  Plant  Foods,  and  Soils."  Bulletin  94, 
New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"  Fertilizers  for  Special  Crops."     Year-book,  1902. 

"  Commercial  Fertilizers."  Bulletin  99,  Vermont  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

"  Pot^ish  and  Its  Function  in  Agriculture."     Year-book,  1896. 

"Soil  Ferments  Important  in  Agriculture."  Year-book;  1895. 
'  Humus  in  Its  Relation  to  Soil  Fertility."     Year-book,  1895. 


OUTLINE    OF    CHAPTER    V. 

LEGUMINOUS   PLANTS. 

^.—LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS    AS    NITROGEN 
GATHERERS. 

I.  Nitrogen -fixing  Bacteria. 
II.  Inoculation  of  the  Soil. 
III.  Other  Conditions. 

^.—LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS  AS  SOIL  RENO- 
VATORS. 

I.  As  Deep  Feeders. 

1.  Mechanical  Action. 

2.  Chemical  Actio7i. 

II.  For  Green  Manuring. 

C— LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS    AS    FOOD. 

I.  High  per  cent,  of  Digestible  Crude  Protein. 
II.  Table  of  Comparisons. 
III.  Not  Lacking  in  Carbohydrates. 

Z).— SPECIFIC    CASES. 

I.  Red  Clover. 
II.  Crimson  Clover. 

III.  Alfalfa. 

IV.  Cow-peas. 
V.  Soy-beans. 

£.— REFERENCES. 

107 


CHAPTER    V. 

LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS. 

From  the  foregoing  chapters  the  student 
should  have  an  understanding  of  the  fact  that 
the  food  of  plants  must  contain  certain  ele- 
ments, and  that  these  food  elements  must  be 
obtained  from  the  air  or  as  soluble  material 
from  the  soil,  so  that  they  can  be  absorbed  by 
the  roots. 

One  of  the  most  important  elements  is  nitro- 
gen (see  Chapter  IV.).  It  is  found  in  the  pro- 
toplasm of  every  plant  cell.  The  nitrogenous 
compounds  in  the  plant,  taken  as  a  whole,  are 
called  crude  protein.  No  plant  can  live  without 
a  supply  of  nitrogenous  food. 

Now  if  this  nitrogen  is  to  be  obtained  from 
the  soil,  and  since  the  plant  requires  so  great  a 
proportion  of  it,  it  will  be  easily  seen  that  the 
supply  in  ordinary  soils  would  in  time  be  ex- 
hausted unless  some  means  were  taken  to 
replenish  it.  This  is  usually  done  by  the  appli- 
cation of  a  fertilizer — some  salt  of  nitrogen, 
v/hich  is  the  most  expensive  of  fertilizers. 


109 


110  AGRICULTURE. 

y^.— LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS    AS    NITROGEN 
GATHERERS. 

I.  Nitrogen-fixing   Bacteria. 

In  recent  years  it  has  been  discovered  (see 
foot-note,  p.  32)  that  certain  plants,  through 
their  intimate  relation  with  other  low  plant 
forms,  bacteria,  are  able  to  obtain  nitrogen  from 
the  inexhaustible  supply  of  the  air.  The  exact 
relation  existing  between  these  soil  bacteria  and 
the  roots  of  leguminous  plants  is  not  fully  under- 
stood. But  it  has  been  proven  by  many  experi- 
ments that  wherever  the  bacteria  which  work 
upon  a  particular  species  of  plant  are  present — 
which  is  shown  by  the  nodules  upon  the  roots 
(Fig.  31) — the  plant  is  able  to  make  a  luxu- 
riant growth  without  the  addition  of  nitrogen- 
ous fertilizers,  providing,  of  course,  that  other 
necessary  conditions  are  present. 

II.  Inoculation  of  the  Soil. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  particular  spe- 
cies of  bacteria  which  works  upon  a  certain 
species  of  leguminous  plant  is  not  present  in 
the  soil.  In  this  case  the  plant — vetch,  for  ex- 
ample— has  no  nodules  upon  its  roots  (Fig. 
30),  is  weak  and  sickly,  and  a  profitable  crop 
cannot  be  obtained  unless  heavy  applications  of 
nitrogenous  fertilizers  are  made,  which  would 
entail  considerable  expense,  or  the  soil  of  this 
field  be  inoculated  with  the  bacteria  which  work 


FIG.    30.  — COMPARISON    OF   VETCH    PIANTS. 
Grown  upon  inoculated  and  uninoculated  soil. 


1 1'> 


AGRICULTURE. 


upon  this  vetch.  This  inoculation  may  be  done 
by  a  light  application  of  the  soil  in  which  these 
bacteria  are  known  to  be.  Their  presence  is 
indicated  by  the  luxuriant  growth  of  the  vetch 


KIG.    31. — ROOTS    OK    YELLOW    SOY-BEAN. 

Grown  at  the  Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  in  1S96,  on  land  inocu- 
lated with  an  extract  containing  the  tubercle-forming  bacteria. 

and  the  presence  of  nodules  on  its  roots  (see 
Fig.  30).  If  any  considerable  area  is  to  be  in- 
oculated, this  method  of  inoculation  is  too  ex- 
pensive to  be  practical,  as  it  requires  from  500 
to  1,000  pounds  of  soil  to  an  acre. 

Recently,  through  investigations  in  the  labo- 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  113 

ratory  of  Plant  Physiology,  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  Washington  has  shown  that  "the 
bacteria,  when  grown  upon  nitrogen-free  media, 
will  retain  their  high  activity  if  they  are  care- 
fully dried  out  and  then  revived  in  a  liquid 
medium  at  the  end  of  varying  lengths  of  time. 
By  using  some  absorbent  which  will  soak  up 
millions  of  the  tubercle-forming  organisms,  and 
then  by  allowing  these  cultures  to  become  dry, 
the  bacteria  can  be  sent  to  any  part  of  the 
United  States  or  the  world,  and  yet  arrive  in 
perfect  condition.  Of  course,  it  is  necessary  to 
revive  the  dry  germs  by  immersion  in  water, 
and,  with  the  addition  of  certain  nutrient  salts, 
the  original  number  of  bacteria  is  greatly  in- 
creased if  allowed  to  stand  for  a  short  time. 
Frequentl)'  twenty-four  hours  are  sufficient  to 
cause  the  water  in  a  pail  to  turn  milky  white 
with  the  number  of  organisms  formed  in  that 
time.  Thus,  by  sending  out  a  dry  culture  sim- 
ilar to  a  yeast  cake,  and  no  larger  in  size,  the 
original  number  of  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria  may 
be  multiplied  sufficiently  to  inoculate  at  least  an 
acre  of  land.  The  amount  of  material  thus  ob- 
tained is  limited  only  by  the  quantity  of  the 
nutrient  water  solution  used  in  increasing  the 
germs.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  cost  of 
inoculating  the  land  is  very  small."  The  dry  cul- 
tures may  be  obtained  from  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  without  cost. 


114  AGRICULTURE. 

"The  way  in  which  the  liquid  culture  may  be 
introduced  into  the  soil  varies  somewhat  with 
the  character  of  the  seed  to  be  used  and  the 
area  of  the  field  to  be  treated.  With  large  seed 
it  is  often  more  convenient  to  simply  soak  them 
in  the  fluid,  or  moisten  them  with  it,  and  then, 
after  they  are  sufficiently  dry,  to  sow  them  in 
the  ordinary  way.  In  other  cases  it  is  frequently 
more  feasible  to  introduce  the  liquid  culture 
directly  into  the  soil.  This  may  be  done  by 
spraying,  or  perhaps  a  simpler  method  is  to  mix 
the  culture  thoroughly  with  a  wagon-load  of 
earth,  and  then  to  distribute  and  harrow  this  in, 
just  as  a  fertilizer  would  be  handled."* 

III.  Other  Conditions. 

It  may  be  possible  that  some  condition  of  the 
soil  prevents  the  healthy  growth  of  the  species 
of  bacteria.  They  require  an  abundant  supply 
of  air  (see  "Tillage")  and  plenty  of  moisture, 
though  this  should  not  be  present  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  prevent  the  free  circulation  of  the 
air.  They  will  not  thrive  in  an  acid  soil;  hence, 
if  difficulty  is  found  in  growing  leguminous 
crops,  it  would  be  well  to  give  the  soil  a  light 
application  of  lime  if  it  is  not  known  to  already 
contain  it. 


*  Yf(ir-book,  United    States    Department   of  Agriculture,  1902, 
P-  341- 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS. 


115 


A— LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS    AS 
SOIL  RENOVATORS. 

I.  As  Deep  Feeders. 

Leguminous  plants  also  have 
the  advantage  of  being  deep 
feeders ;  hence,  they  require  a 
subsoil  which  they  can  pene- 
trate, and  alfalfa,  in  particular, 
cannot  be  successfully  grown  if 
the  soil  is  underlaid  with  rock 
or  hard-pan. 

The  roots  of  these  plants 
thus  improve  the  soil  in  two 
ways  : 

1.  By  Mechanical Actionthoy 
loosen  the  subsoil,  making  it 
more  easily  penetrated  by  water, 
and  by  subsequently  formed 
roots;  and, 

2.  Chemically,  by  bringing 
up  from  below  quantities  of  the 
salts  of  phosphorus  and  potas- 
sium, as  well  as  obtaining, 
through  the  bacteria,  a  rich 
supply  of  nitrogen  from  the  air. 
Large  amounts  of  these  ele- 
ments, by  the  decay  of  these 
roots  and  the  stubble,  are  pre- 
pared for  the  use  of  subsequent 
crops  of  surface-feeding  plants. 


FIG.  32. 

ALFALFA    PLANT. 
I/>ng  root.«ystenj. 


116  AGRICULTURE. 

11.  For  Green  Manuring, 

or  plowing  under  for  fertilizing,  the  leguminous 
plants,  such  as  the  red,  white,  or  the  crimson 
clover,  cow-peas,  and  soy-beans,  are  of  more 
value  than  other  crops,  since  they  are  compara- 
tively rich  in  phosphorus  and  potash,  and  fur- 
nish a  supply  of  nitrogenous  compounds,  the 
nitrogen  of  which  is  obtained,  through  their  re- 
lation with  certain  bacteria,  from  the  air,  thus 
not  impoverishing  the  soil.  Green  manuring 
with  leguminous  plants,  while  very  effective,  can 
hardly  be  afforded,  except  for  the  purpose  of 
building  up  worn-out,  or  poor,  soil,  since  legu- 
minous hay  is  so  valuable  as  feed  (Chapter  I.). 
At  the  same  time  more  than  half  of  the  fertiliz- 
ing elements  may  be  given  back  to  the  soil  in 
stable  manure  if  rightly  cared  for  and  applied. 

C— LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS  AS  FOOD. 

I.  Digestible  Crude  Protein 

is  absolutely  essential  to  the  upbuilding  of  the 
tissues  of  the  animal  body  in  repairing  broken- 
down  tissues.  It  has  been  proven  by  repeated 
experiments  that  a  ration  which  contains  a  large 
per  cent,  of  digestible  crude  protein  gives  the 
best  results  for  the  least  money  in  the  produc- 
tion of  milk,  and  in  contributing  to  a  vigorous 
and  healthful  growth  of  the  young.  It  has  been 
ascertained  by  analysis,  as  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing table  of  comparisons,  that  the  per  cent,  of 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS. 


117 


protein  contained  in  the  hay  of  leguminous 
plants  is  more  than  double  that  in  the  same 
weight  of  the  hay  of  grasses. 

II.— TABLE  or  COMPARISONS.* 

DIGESTIBI^E  NUTRIENTS  AND  FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS. 


NAME  OF  PEED. 


Hay 

Timothy 

Redtop 

Kentucky  blue-grass 
Red  clover,  tnediuni. 
White  clover  .... 
Crimson  clover  .   . 

Alfalfa 

Cow-pea 


«  a 


Lbs. 
86.8 
91.1 

78.8 
84.7 

90-3 
90.4 
91.6 
893 


DIGESTIBLE  NUTRI- 
ENTS  IN   100  POUNDS. 


Lbs. 
2.8 
48 
4.8 
6.8 
II  5 
10.5 

II. o 

10.8 


^1 


Lbs. 

43-4 
46.9 
37.3 
35.8 
42.2 
34-9 
39-6 
38.6 


Lbs. 

1.4 
i.o 
2.0 
1-7 
1.5 
1.2 


FERTILIZING  CONSTIT- 
UENTS IN  1,000  POUNDS. 


Lbs. 

12.6 

"•5 
II. 9 
20.7 

27-5 
20.5 
21.9 
19-5 


Lbs. 

5.3 
3-6 
4.0 
3.8 
5-2 
4.0 
5-1 
5-2 


Lbs. 
9.0 
10.2 

157 
22.0 
18. 1 

13.1 
16.8 

14.7 


When  it  is  considered  that  the  majority  of 
leguminous  plants  yield  two  or  more  crops  an- 
nually, it  will  be  seen  that  they  supply  from  two 
to  four  times  as  much  protein  per  acre  as  the 
grasses.  Of  the  nitrogen  contained  in  this  pro- 
tein, it  should  again  be  emphasized  that  a  large 
proportion  of  it  is  obtained  from  the  air,  through 
the  relation  of  these  plants  with  the  bacteria, 
and  thus  the  soil  is  not  deprived  of  its  supply 
of  nitrogen,  as  is  the  case  with  other  forage 
plants  ;  hence,  no  expensive  nitrogenous  fertili- 
zer will  be  required  to  replenish  the  soil  of  fields 
sown  with  leguminous  crops. 

*  Adapted  from  Henry's  Feeds  and  Feeding, 


118  AGRICULTURE. 

III.  Not  Lacking  in  Carbohydrates. 

It  will  also  be  seen  from  the  table  that  the 
leguminous  hay  only  lacks  about  5  per  cent,  of 
being  as  rich  in  the  heat-producing  elements, 
carbohydrates  and  ether  extract,  as  the  hay  of 
grasses.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  require  in 
most  cases  no  supplementary  nitrogenous  food 
in  the  form  of  expensive  meals  as  wheat  shorts, 
gluten  meal,  and  cottonseed-meal,  as  does  the 
hay  of  grasses. 

Legu77ihious  plants  are  valuable,  then,  in  that 
(i)  they  do  not  exhaust  the  soil  of  its  nitrogen, 
but  may  be  made  (through  their  relation  with 
the  bacteria)  to  add  to  the  soil's  supply  of 
nitrogen  from  that  of  the  air;  (2)  they  are  deep 
feeders,  and  bring  up  from  below  and  deposit 
near  the  surface  other  kinds  of  plant-food;  (3) 
they  make  a  more  economical  food  than  grasses; 
(4)  that  the  manure  from  such  crops  makes  a 
better  fertilizer  than  that  obtained  by  feeding 
the  hay  of  grasses. 

Z>.— SPECIFIC  CASES. 

I.  Red  Clover  (  Trifolunn  pratejise) 
need  only  be  mentioned,  as  it  is  already  well 
known  and  its  value  recognized.  It  is  widely 
grown  in  the  Northern  and  Eastern  States,  but 
is  not  generally  grown  so  successfully  in  the 
South  and  West  as  other  legumes.  It  is  best  to 
cut  it  when  not  more  than  20  per  cent,  of  the 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  119 

blossoms  are  turning-  brown,  since  not  only  is 
the  yield  heavier  at  this  time  (as  the  leaves, 
which  are  the  best  part  of  the  hay  drop  off  when 
it  is  riper),  but  its  nutritive  value  is  greatest. 

Clover  hay  is  excellent  roughage  for  sheep, 
cows,  and  growing  stock.  The  dust  detracts 
from  its  value  as  roughage  for  horses,  but  a 
limited  amount  may  be  fed  to  them  in  connec- 
tion with  other  rough  food. 

II.  Crimson  Clover  {Trifoliuvi  incarnahmi) , 
though  not  so  valuable  for  hay  as  red  clover — 
since  it  is  an  annual  and  makes  but  one  crop — 
is  excellent  for  green  manuring,  winter  soil 
mulching,  and  soiling — cutting  green  and  supply- 
ing to  the  stock  in  barns  and  yards. 

It  is  better  adapted  to  the  Southern  States, 
as  the  fall  sowing  will  not  stand  the  severe  win- 
ters of  the  North,  nor  the  drouth  of  the  western 
plains,  though  fine  crops  have  sometimes  been 
obtained  outside  the  Southern  States. 

It  may  be  sown  in  spring  or  early  summer, 
when  it  matures  in  late  summer  or  autumn. 
This  crop  makes  a  good  fall  pasture,  after  which 
it  may  be  plowed  under,  or  if  not  having  been 
allowed  to  produce  seed  and  it  survives  the 
winter,  it  may  be  used  for  green  food,  soiling, 
or  as  green  manuring  in  the  spring.  It  is,  how- 
ever, commonly  sown  in  late  summer  or  early 
fall;  where  the  winters  are  mild  it  serves  excel- 
lently as  a  winter  soil  mulch. 


120  AGRICULTURE. 

In  the  spring  it  may  be  used  as  green  manur- 
ing for  corn  or  cotton  fields,  or  for  soiling  or 
spring  pastures,  or  it  may  be  allowed  to  grow 
for  hay ;  but  it  must  be  ctU  before  it  is  in  full 
bloovi,  for  when  the  blossoms  are  fully  ripe  the 
bristly  hairs  and  the  calyx  are  liable  to  form 
balls  in  the  stomach  or  intestines  of  horses  or 
cattle,  which  cause  their  death. 

III.  Alfalfa  {Medicago  sativa). 

Alfalfa  cannot  be  grown  on  all  soils.  It  is  a 
deep  feeder,  the  roots  penetrating  the  ground 
to  a  depth  of  from  eight  to  twenty-five  feet 
(Fig.  32),  and  cases  have  been  reported  where,  in 
loose  sandy  soils,  alfalfa  roots  have  been  found 
at  a  depth  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet. 

It  must  have  a  subsoil  which  its  roots  can 
penetrate.  The  soil  must  be  well  drained  and 
well  ventilated,  so  that  the  nitrogen-fixing 
organisms  (bacteria)  which  work  upon  its  roots 
may  be  well  supplied  with  nitrogen  from  the 
air.  It  thrives  best  in  a  soil  rich  in  lime,  potash, 
magnesium,  and  phosphorus — lime  being  the 
most  essential. 

The  soil  must  be  thoroughly  prepared.  A 
field  should  be  selected  which  is  free  from  the 
seeds  of  weeds,  and  plowed  thoroughly  and 
deeply.  If  no  subsoil  plow  is  to  be  had,  "the  best 
substitute  is  two  turning  plows,  the  one  follow- 
ing in  the  furrow  made  by  the  other."  The  Soil 
must  then  be  thoroughly  pulverized  and  made 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  121 

smooth.  This  prepares  the  ground,  for  from 
four  to  forty  years,  for  three  to  five  crops  per 
year,  so  the  work  may  well  be  done  with  care. 

As  soon  as  there  is  no  more  danger  of  frost 
in  the  spring  the  alfalfa  seed — which  has  been 
screened  to  allow,  if  present,  the  fine  seeds  of 
its  worst  enemy,  the  dodder,  to  pass  through 
(see  "  Purity  of  Seeds,"  Chapter  IX) — should  be 
drilled  in  thickly  (20  to  25  pounds  to  the  acre) 
to  keep  down  the  weeds.  The  field  may  be  en- 
riched occasionally  with  fertilizers  containing 
lime,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid,  but  no  nitro- 
genous fertilizer  will  be  needed. 

The  stable  compost,  when  feeding  alfalfa, 
makes  an  excellent  fertilizer  for  surface-feeding 
crops,  as  the  grasses  and  grains. 

The  weeds  should  be  carefully  kept  down  by 
reseeding  the  spots  where  the  stand  is  poor, 
and  by  frequent  mowing,  if  need  be,  until  the 
alfalfa  has  reached  the  third  year  of  its  growth, 
when  the  root  system  will  have  become  strongly 
developed  and  a  good  stand  may  be  expected. 

Of  all  the  leguminous  plants,  alfalfa  seems  to 
have  the  greatest  number  of  points  in  its  favor. 
It  enriches  the  soil  by  bringing  up  from  great 
depths  plant-food,  and  depositing  it  in  its  tis- 
sues near  and  upon  the  surface.  It,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  infesting  bacteria,  gets  its  supply 
of  nitrogen  from  the  air,  and  stores  up  large 
quantities  of  nitrogenous  compounds  in  its  tis- 


122  AGRICULTURE. 

sues.  It  makes  excellent  pasture  for  horses  and 
hogs ;  however,  it  will  not  bear  too  close  feed- 
ing, as  it  does  not  sprout  from  the  stem  but 
from  the  roots,  and  the  "vitality  of  the  root 
may  be  impaired  if  the  young  stems  are  grazed 
as  fast  as  they  appear."  Alfalfa  is  not  a  good 
p-een  food  for  cattle  and  sheep,  as  it  causes 
them  to  bloat,  though  it  is  believed  by  some 
that  if  a  supply  of  dry  roughage  is  put  where 
they  can  get  it  while  feeding  on  alfalfa  and 
clover  pasture,  that  stock  will  not  suffer  from 
bloating.*  Soiling  (see  "  Principles  of  Feed- 
ing") also  may  be  practiced  with  alfalfa.  There 
is  no  farm  crop  of  greater  value  as  hay.  Alfalfa 
hay  is  richer  in  digestible  nutrients  than  red 
clover  hay,  and  from  three  to  five,  or  as  many 
as  seven,  cuttings  may  be  made  from  an  alfalfa 
field  annually.  It  should  be  cut  for  hay  when 
it  first  begins  to  bloom.  Alfalfa  hay  should  be 
handled  as  little  as  possible  to  get  it  into  the 
stack  or  barn,  as  the  leaves,  which  are  the  best 
part  of  the  hay,  drop  off  when  dry.  The  hay 
should  be  sheltered  from  rains.  The  second 
crop  of  alfalfa  (in  Colorado  and  similar  localities 
the  first  is  used)  should  be  cut  for  seed,  as  the 
blossoms  ripen  more  uniformly,  and  this  crop 
seeds  better — probably  because  there  are  a 
greater  number  of  insects  to  fertilize  the  flowers. 


Henry's  Feeds  and  Feeding,  p.  aoi* 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  123 

Since  alfalfa  hay  is  exceedingly  rich  it  must 
be  supplemented  by  foods  containing  the  car- 
bohydrates— as,  corn  fodder,  straw,  or  silage. 
Alfalfa  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  latitude. 
It  has  been  successfully  grown  as  far  north  as 
Central  New  York,  Michigan,  and  Montana, 
and  as  far  south  as  California,  Louisiana,  and 
Florida,  and  it  stands  the  drouth  of  the  western 
plains  better  than  any  other  forage  crop. 
IV.  Cow-peas  (  Vigna  catjang') . 

There  are  numerous  varieties  of  cow-peas, 
from  the  "bush-pea"  to  the  prostrate  runners, 
with  many  gradations  between  them.  Their 
season  of  growth  varies  from  a  few  weeks  to 
several  months  (see  "Variation  Induced  by  En- 
vironmental Changes — Climatic'). 

Cow-peas  will  grow  on  soil  which  is  too  poor 
to  support  clover,  and  they  are  excellent  soil- 
renewers  when  plowed  under  green,  and  far  less 
expensive  than  commercial  fertilizers  for  worn- 
out  or  barren  soil.  This  crop  is  best  adapted 
to  the  South,  as  it,  like  that  of  other  beans,  is 
very  sensitive  to  frost.  Certain  varieties,  how- 
ever, have  been  grown  as  far  north  as  Wiscon- 
sin— also  in  the  New  England  States,  as  soiling 
crops. 

Much  of  the  failure  in  the  North  has  been 
caused  by  planting  when  the  ground  was  too 
cold  or  wet.  From  the  table  it  will  be  seen 
that  the   hay  of  cow-peas  yields  a  greater  per 


124 


AGRICULTURE. 


FIG.    33. — THE   COW-PEA. 


cent,  of  dry  matter  than  that  of  red  clover.  It 
is  also  much  richer  in  the  digestible  protein. 
In  the  Gulf  States  a  yield  of  from  four  to  six 
tons  per  acre  is  common.  The  South  Carolina 
Station  reported,  in  1889,  a  yield  of  3.6  tons  to 
the  acre.     Its  analysis  showed  that  it  furnished 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  125 

twice  the  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  as  that 
of  one  acre  of  oats  yielding   forty  bushels,  and 


FIG.    34. — THE   SOY-BEAN. 

40  per  cent,  more  than  that  produced  by  an  acre 
of  corn  yielding  thirty  bushels. 

When  cow-peas  are  grown  to  enrich  the  soil 
the  hay  may  be  fed  to  stock  and  the  manure 
returned  to  the  field,  or  the  vines  may  be  plowed 
under  in  the  fall,  and  the  field  sown  in  oats,  rye. 


126  AGRICULTURE. 

or  vetch,  to  prevent  the  leaching  out  of  valuable 
fertilizing  materials  by  the  rains. 

The  seeds  make  a  valuable  concentrated  food, 
but  since,  as  yet,  there  is  no  means  of  thresh- 
ing them  satisfactorily  unless  gathered  by  hand, 
it  is  quite  expensive. 

V.  The  Soy-bean  {^Glycbie  hispida) 
(Fig.  34)  is  largely  grown  in  the  South,  but  can 
be  grown  wherever  Indian  corn  can  be  grown 
successfully.  It  feeds  heavily  upon  potash,  and 
requires  fertilizing  with  lime,  potash,  and  phos- 
phorus if  the  soil  is  poor  in  these  materials.  It 
should  not  be  planted  until  the  ground  is  warm. 
It  grows  rapidly,  and  generally  requires  little 
cultivation. 

The  hay  is  rich  in  protein.  It  should  be  cut 
at  the  time  of,  or  soon  after,  blooming.  The 
seed  yields  from  twenty-five  to  forty  bushels  per 
acre.  The  beans  are  rich  in  protein  and  oil, 
hence  they  make  a  desirable  concentrated  food 
to  be  fed  in  connection  with  roughage. 

Exercise  5. — {a)  Collect  specimens  of  various  legu- 
minous plants,  taking  great  care  to  procure  the  root 
systems  intact. 

{l>)  Look  for  tubercles  or  nodules  on  the  roots.  Where 
found  ? 

{c)  Note  the  relative  size  of  nodules  upon  different 
kinds  of  plants,  ^nd  upon  the  same  kind  of  plants 
grown  in  different  soils. 

{d)  Do  you  find  any  legumes  which  have  no  nodules? 
If  so,  test  the  soil  in   which   they  were  grown  for  acid. 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  127 

If  any  acid  is  present,  what  would  you   advise  ?     If  no 
acid  is  present,  what? 

REFERENCES. 

"  Bacteria  and  the  Nitrogen  Problem."  Year-book,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1902. 

"Canadian  Field-peas."     Year-book,  1895. 

"The  Relation  of  Chemistry  to  the  Progress  of  Agriculture." 
Year-book,  1S99. 

"Cow-peas."     Year-book,  1896. 

"Leguminous  Plants."  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  16.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"  Beans,  Peas,  and  Other  Legumes  as  Food."  Farmers'  Bulle- 
tin, No.  121,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1900. 

"  Alfalfa,  or  Lucern."  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  31,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"  Cow-peas."  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  89,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

"  Forage  Crops."  Bulletin,  No.  56,  Texas  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station. 

"  The  Soy-bean  as  a  Forage  Crop."  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No. 
58,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"Forage  Crops."  Bulletin,  No.  59,  Texas  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station. 

"  Soil  Bacteria  in  Their  Relation  to  Agriculture."  Bulletin 
No.  40,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Delaware. 

"  The  Soy-bean."  Bulletin,  No.  92,  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Rhode  Island. 

"  Crimson  Clover."  Bulletin,  No.  44,  Virginia  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

"Cowpeas."  Bulletin  No.  73.  Missouri  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station. 


OUTLINE    OF    CHAPTER    VI. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING. 

^.—OBJECT    OF    FEEDING. 

^.- KINDS    OF    FOOD. 
I.  Nitrogenous  Foods. 
II.  Carbonaceous  Toods. 
III.  Other  Elements. 

C— COMPARISON    OF    NITROGENOUS    AND 
CARBONACEOUS    FOODS. 

I.  Protein. 

II.  Carbohydrates. 

III.  Ether  Extract. 

1.  Heat    Value. 

2.  Calculating  the  Heat-producing  Material  in  Corn. 

Z>.— FEEDING    TABLES. 

I.  Analysis  of  Feeding  Stuffs. 

1.  Amount  of  Nutrients. 

2.  Per  Cent,  of  Digestibility. 

II.  Wolff-Lehmann  Feeding  Standards. 

1.  A  Balanced  Ration. 

2.  How  the  Standards  were  Obtained. 

3.  Standards  Used  Only  as  a  Basis. 

4.  Nutritive  Ratio.     Exercise  6. 

5.  Compounding  Rations. 

129 


130  AGRICULTURE. 

A— FEEDING   STUFFS. 

I.  PalatabiUty. 
II.  Kinds. 

1 .  Concentrates. 

2.  Roughage. 

(i)  Dry  Forage. 
(2)  Green  Forage. 

{a)  Pasture. 

{h)  Soiling. 

{c)  Silage. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING. 

"  The  mind  of  the  master  fattens  his  cattle''' 

^.—OBJECT    OF    FEEDING. 

Farm  crops  are  grown  for  the  profit  there  is 
in  them  to  the  farmer.  Farm  animals  are  fed 
to  increase  this  profit. 

Anything  grown  on  the  farm  which  will  help 
to  form  a  suitable  food  for  stock  should  be  fed 
and  the  waste  returned  to  the  soil,  so  that  the 
largest  profit  may  be  obtained  with  the  smallest 
loss  to  the  soil.  The  profit  obtained  from  feed- 
ing farm  animals  may  be  manifested  in  one  of 
three  forms  of  work  done  :  (i)  increase  of  fiesh, 
by  growth  or  fattening;  (2)  production  of  milk, 
wool,  etc.,  or  (3)  labor  performed. 

The  amount  of  digestible  food,  then,  must 
exceed  the  supply  necessary  for  the  demands  of 
the  body  by  the  amount  sufficient  to  promote 
the  work  exacted  of  the  animal ;  otherwise  the 
work  is  done  at  the  expense  of  the  body,  and 
the  overworked  and  underfed  animal  becomes 
poor  and  weak,  because  it  has  drawn  upon  the 
tissues  of  the  body  (fiesh  consumption)  to  sup- 
ply the  energy  for  work.  In  the  food  of  ani- 
mals, as  in  that  of  plants,  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
sider only  a  few  kinds. 

131 


132  AGRICULTURE. 

^.— KINDS    OF    FOOD. 

I.  Nitrogenous  Foods. 

Those  supplying  nitrogenous  compounds,  or 
protein,  which  are  used  in  the  formation  of  tis- 
sues— as,  muscle,  bone,  hair,  horn,  and  also  of 
blood  and  milk — must  be  furnished  to  promote 
the  growth  of  the  growing  animal. 

II.  Carbonaceous  Foods. 

Those — as,  starch  and  sugar — which  supply  the 
carbohydrates  and  fats  are  necessary  to  produce 
the  heat  and  energy  of  the  body.  If  there  is 
an  excess  of  this  kind  of  food  over  that  required 
in  producing  heat  and  energy  it  is  stored  in  the 
body  as  fat,  and  may  be  drawn  upon  at  any  time 
when  the  food  does  not  contain  sufficient  heat- 
producing  elements. 

III.  Other  Elements. 

There  are  other  elements  necessary  to  a  com- 
plete food,  but  they  are  always  contained  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  in  all  foods  which  supply  the 
necessary  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fats,  so  do 
not  need  to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  the 
selection  of  foods. 

C— COMPARISON    OF    NITROGENOUS    AND 
CARBONACEOUS    FOODS. 

I.  Protein. 

When  the  carbohydrates  are  lacking,  heat  and 
energy  can  be  produced  by  the  protein  of  the 
food,  or  even  by  the  tissues,  by  flesh  consump- 


PRINCIPLES   FOR   FEEDING.  133 

tion;  but  \{  protein  is  lacking  in  the  food,  neither 
the  carbohydrates  nor  any  other  constituent  can 
take  its  place.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  protein  is  by  far  the  most  expensive,  and 
that  it  is  at  an  actual  loss  to  the  stockman  that 
protein-furnishing  food  is  allowed  to  take  the 
place  of  the  cheaper  carbohydrates  in  supplying 
the  heat  and  energy  of  the  animals  fed — espe- 
cially since  the  maintenance  of  heat  and  energy 
requires  the  greater  portion  of  the  food. 

II.  Carbohydrates. 

It  has  been  found  by  actual  experiments  that 
when  carbohydrates  are  fed  in  connection  with 
protein  that  the  protein  consumption  is  lessened; 
hence,  not  only  is  the  breaking  down  of  the 
tissues  of  the  body  prevented,  but  more  of  the 
protein  of  the  food  is  left  for  the  formation  of 
flesh,  bone,  and  other  tissues. 

III.  Ether  Extract. 

The  fats  perform  the  same  function  in  the 
body  as  do  the  carbohydrates.  Ether  extracts 
are  the  substances  obtained  from  a  "  water  free  " 
food  by  ether.  Though  the  terms  "ether  ex- 
tract" and  "fats"  are  not  strictly  interchange- 
able, they  are  very  often  so  used. 

I.  Heat  Value. — It  has  been  estimated  that 
one  pound  of  ether  extract  will  produce  2.4  times 
as  much  heat  as  one  pound  of  carbohydrates. 


134 


AGRICULTURE. 


TABLE  III.* 

AVERAGE   DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   AND    KKRTIMZING   CONSTITUENTS  IN 

AMERICAN  FEEDING  vSTUFFS. 


NAME  OF  FEED. 


Concentrates. 
Corn,  all  analyses  . 

Sweet  Corn 

Corn  Cob  

Corn  and  cob  meal  . 
Gluten  meal   .... 

Wheat 

Winter  wheat  bran  . 
Wheat  shorts  .... 

Rye 

Rye  shorts 

Oats 

Oatmeal 

Oat  feed  or  shorts.  . 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat  shorts.   . 

Kaffir  corn 

Millet 

Cottonseed-meal  .  . 
Sunflower  seed  .  .  . 
Soja  (.soyabean  .   .    . 

Cow-peas 

Rouf:hage. 
Fodder  corn,  green  . 
Fodder  corn,  field.  . 
Corn  stover,  field  .  . 
Kentucky  blue-grass 
Timothy,  dif.  stages 
Redtop,  in  bloom  .  . 
Hungarian  grass  .  . 
Hav. 

Timothy 

Redtop 

Kentucky  blue-grass 
Hungarian-gra.ss  . 
Mixed  grasses.   .   . 
Soja-beaii  hay.   .   . 
Slunu. 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Fresh  /.efiiinies. 
Red  clover.dif.stages 
Crim.son  clover  .   .    . 

Alfalfa 

Cow-peas 

Soja-l)ean 

l^^ume  hay  and itrau 
Red  clover,  medium. 
White  clover  .  . 
Crim.son  clover  . 

Alfalfa 

Cow-peas  .... 
Soja-i>ean  .... 


Lbs. 
89.1 
91.2 
89-3 
84.9 
91.8 
89-5 
87.7 
88.2 
88.4 
90.7 
89.0 
92.1 
92-3 
87.4 
88.9 
84.8 
86.0 
91.8 
92-,5 
89.2 
8.=S.2 

20.7 
57.8 
59-5 
34-9 
384 
34.7 
28.9 

86.8 
91. 1 

78.8 
92-3 
87.1 

S.S.7 

90.4 

92.9 
90.8 

29.2 
19  I 
28.2 
16.4 
24.9 

84.7 

90-3 
90.4 
91.6 

89-3 
.89.9 


DIGESTIBLE  NUTRI- 
ENTS IN  100  POUNDS. 


Lbs. 

7-9 

8.8 

0.4 

4-4 

25.8 

10.2 

12.3 

12.2 

9-9 
II. 9 
9.2 

12.0 

7-7 
21. 1 
78 
89 
37-2 
12.1 
29.6 
18.3 

i.o 

2..'i 

1-7 
30 
1.2 
2.1 
2.0 

2.8 
4.8 
4.8 
4-5 
%<i 
10.8 

0.4 
0.6 
1.2 

2.9 
2.4 

39 

1.8 

3-2 

68 
II  5 
10  5 

II.O 

10.8 
23 


i  2 


Lbs. 
66.7 
63-7 
52.5 
60  o 

43-3 
69.2 

.37-1 
so.o 
67.6 
45-1 
47-3 
52.1 
46.9 
49.2 
33-5 
57- > 
45-0 
16.9 
20. S 
22.3 
54-2 

11.6 
34-6 
324 
19.8 
19.1 
21.2 
16.0 

43-4 
46.9 

37-3 
51-7 
40.9 

38.7 

36.3 
40  6 

38  6 

14.8 
91 

12.7 
8.7 

1 1.0 

3.S.8 
42.2 
34-9 
39-6 
38.6 
40.0 


'^^ 


Lbs. 
4-3 
7.0 
0.3 
2.9 

II.O 

1.7 
2.6 
3.8 
I  I 
1.6 
4.2 
5-9 
2.8 
1.8 
5..5 
2.7 
3-2 
12.2 
29.0 
14.4 
I.I 

0.4 


0.8 
0.6 
0.6 
04 

1.4 
1.0 
2.0 
'■3 


0.4 
0.4 

o.S 


0.5 
0-5 

C.2 
05 


1.2 
1.2 


FERTILIZING  CONSTIT- 
UENTS IN  1,000  POUNDS. 


Lbs. 

18.2 
18.6 
50 
14.1 
.50.3 
23.6 


28.2 
17.6 
18.4 
20.6 

235 
17.2 

14.4 


20.4 
67.9 
22.8 

53-0 
33-3 

4.1 
17.6 
10.4 


4.8 


3-9 

12.6 
11-5 
II. 9 
12.0 
14.1 
23.2 

5-9 
4.6 
6.2 

4  3 
7-2 

2-7 

2.9 

20.7 

27.5 
20.5 
21.9 

lO-.S 


'l-t'^ 


Lbs. 
7.0 


0.6 
5-7 
3-3 
7-9 


13-5 
8.2 
12.6 

8.2 


9-1 
4.4 


8.5 
28.S 

T2.2 

I.S.7 


i-.S 
5-4 
2.9 


2.6 
'1.6 

36 
4.0 

3  5 

2.7 
6.7 


1-3 
1.0 

I  5 

3-8 
5-2 
4.0 
5-1 
5-2 
4.0 


PRINCIPLES   OF    FEEDING. 


135 


TABLE  IV.* 

FEEDING  STANDARDS  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS. 


PER  DAY  PER  I.OOO  POUNDS  LIVE  WEIGHT. 

THE  ANIMAL. 

Dry 
Mat- 
ter. 

DIGESTIBLE 

NUTRIENTS 

Protein. 

Carbo- 

Ether 

Nutritive 

hydrates. 

Extract. 

ratio  :  1  to 

I.  Fatleniiif;  Caltle. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

First  period 

30 

2.5 

15.0 

0.5 

6.5 

Second  period 

30 

30 

14.5 

0.7 

5-4 

Third  period 

26 

2.7 

15.0 

0.7 

6.2 

2.  Growing  Cattle. 

Dairy  Breeds. 

Age  in      Av.  live  wt. 

months,    per  head,  lbs. 

2-  3  ....  150   ...    . 

23 

4.0 

13.0 

2.0 

f5 

6-12  ....  500   ...   . 

27 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

6.8 

18-24  ....  900   .... 

26 

1.5 

12.0 

0.3 

8.5 

3.  Growing  Cattle. 

J}.— Beef  Breeds. 

2-  3  ....  160  ...   . 

23 

4.2 

13.0 

2.0 

4-2 

6-12  ....  550  ...   . 

25 

2.5 

13.2 

0.7 

6.0 

18-24  ....  950  ...   . 

24 

I.S 

12.0 

0.4 

7.2 

4.    Mi/ch   Cows,   7('/ieH 

vie/ding  daily  : 

1 1.0  p'onnds  of  milk  .   .    . 

25 

1.6 

10. 0 

0.3 

67 

16.5  pounds  of  milk  .   .   . 

27 

2.0 

II. 0 

0.4 

6.0 

27.5  pounds  of  milk  .   .   . 

32 

3.3 

13.0 

0.8 

4.5 

5.  Horses. 

lyight  work 

20 

1-5 

9.5 

0.4 

7.0 

Medium  work 

24 

2.0 

II. 0 

0.6 

6.2 

Heavy  work 

26 

2.5 

13.3 

0.8 

6.0 

6.  Sheep. 

Coarse  wool 

20 

1.2 

10.5 

0.2 

9-1 

Fine  wool 

23 

1-5 

12.0 

0-3 

8.5 

7.  Fattening  Sheep. 

First  period 

30 

3.0 

15.0 

0.5 

5.4 

Second   period 

28 

3-5 

14.5 

0.6 

4-5 

S.  Fattening  .S~u'ine. 

First  period 

36 

4.5 

25.0 

0.7 

.S-9 

Second  period 

32 

4.0 

24.0 

0.5 

6.3 

Third  period 

25 

2.7 

iS.o 

0.4 

7.0 

9.  Grmuing,  Fattening 

S7L'ine. 

Age  in      Av.  live  wt. 

months,    per  head,  lbs. 

2-  3  ...   .    50  ...   . 

44 

7.6 

28.0 

I.O 

4.0 

5-  6  ....  150  ...    . 

33 

4-3 

22.3 

0.6 

5-5 

9-12  ....  300  ...    . 

26 

3-0 

18.3 

0.3 

6.4 

*  These  tables  are  adapted  from  Henry's  Feeds  and  Feeding. 


136  AGRICULTURE. 

2.  Calculating  the  Heat-producing  Material 
in  Corn. — In  the  table  the  ether  extract  in  corn 
(all  analyses)  is  given  as  4.3  ;  multiplying  by  2.4, 
the  product  is  10.32  pounds.  The  carbohy- 
drates are  given  as  66.71  pounds.  Adding  the 
heat  value  of  the  ether  extract  (10.32  pounds) 
to  the  carbohydrates  given,  the  sum  is  77.02 
pounds,  the  total  heat-producing  material  in  100 
pounds  of  corn. 

I.  Analysis  of  Feeding  Stuffs. 

1.  The  amount  of  carbohydrates,  of  ether  ex- 
tract, and  of  protein  in  a  given  food  has  been 
ascertained  by  repeated  analyses.  These 
amounts  vary  in  different  samples  of  the  same 
kind  of  food,  but  the  average  results  of  a  large 
number  of  analyses  are  used  as  a  basis  for  the 
tables. 

2.  Per  cejit.  of  Digestibility. — But  the  amoimt 
of  nutrients  contained  in  a  food  is  not  enough 
to  know.  One  must  know  what  per  cent,  of  it 
is  available — that  is,  what  per  cent,  of  it  the  ani- 
mal in  a  given  condition  is  able  to  digest  and 
assimilate.  Many  experiments*  have  been  and 
are  being  made  to  find  out  the  percent,  of  these 
nutrients  actually  digested.  Some  of  the  results 
are  given  in  table  III. 

II.  Wolff- Lehman n  Feeding  Standards. 

I.  A  Balanced  Ration. — Not  only  is  it  essen- 
tial to  know  the  amount  of  digestible   protein, 

*  Henry's  Feeds  and  Feediii};,  pp.  26,  27. 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING.  137 

carbohydrates,  and  ether  extract,  but  it  is  im- 
portant to  know  the  proportion  of  each  of  these 
two  kinds  (tissue-forming  and  heat-producing) 
of  digestible  nutrients  in  the  feed  required  to 
produce  the  best  results  in  different  animals  un- 
der various  conditions  of  development  or  re- 
quirements of  work.  Such  a  food,  or  combina- 
tion of  foods,  for  each  day  is  called  "  a  balanced 
ration." 

2.  How  the  Standards  were  Obtained. — Many 
feeding  trials  have  been  made  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  the  ratio  which  should  exist  be- 
tween the  two  kinds — heat  and  energy  produ- 
cing and  tissue-forming  nutrients. 

The  feeding  standards  originally  prepared  by 
Dr.  Emil  v.  Wolff  and  modified  by  Dr.  C.  L. 
Lehmann — hence,  called  the  Wolff-Lehmann 
feeding  standards — are  the  results  of  such  trials, 
and  while  these  standards  (see  Table  IV.)  are 
not  to  be  considered  absolute,  they  are  based 
upon  actual  results  obtained  by  repeated  trials 
of  various  combinations  of  these  nutrients. 
"  The  standards  are  arranged  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  farm  animals  under  normal  con- 
ditions." 

3.  These  Standards  are  Used  Only  as  a  Basis. 
— This  table,  while  giving  the  actual  amounts 
digested  by  the  animals  which  were  fed,  is  only 
approximately  true  for  other  animals  under  sim- 
ilar conditions,  for  the  amount  digested  depends 


138  AGRICULTURE. 

not  alone  upon  the   food,  but  upon   the   breed, 
individuality,  and  condition  of  the  animal  fed. 

These  standards  are  excellent  as  a  basis  for 
feeding  and  for  comparison.  No  stockman 
should  omit  the  results  of  his  own  experience — 
if  he  has  kept  an  accurate  record  of  feeds  and 
their  results — as  an  element  in  deciding  upon  a 
suitable  ration  for  different  animals  at  different 
stages  of  development  or  different  requirements 
of  work. 

4.  Niitritive  Ratio. — The  ratio  between  the 
protein  and  the  heat-producing  elements  (car- 
bohydrates and  ether  extracts)  for  any  kind  of 
food,  or  combination  of  foods,  is  called  the  nu- 
tritive ratio.  For  example,  in  the  daily  food 
required — 20  pounds  dry  matter — for  a  horse 
doing  light  work,  the  amount  of  digestible  pro- 
tein is  1.5  pounds;  carbohydrates,  9.5  pounds; 
ether  extract,  .4  pounds.  Multiplying  the  num- 
ber of  pounds  of  ether  extract,  .4,  by  2.4,  or  its 
heat  value,  the  result  is  .96  pounds  ;  this,  plus 
the  carbohydrates,  9.5  pounds,  is  equal  to  10.46 
pounds.  Dividing  the  10.46  pounds  of  heat- 
producing  elements  by  the  number  of  pounds  of 
protein,  1.5,  the  result  is  7:;  therefore,  the  nu- 
tritive ratio  of  this  food  is  1:7. 

Exercise  6. — (<?)  What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  food 
containing  .7  pounds  of  protein,  8  pounds  of  carbohy- 
drates, and  .1  pound  ether  extract? 

{b)   If  the  nutritive  ratio   of  a  food  is    1:7.7,   ^"^  the 


PRINCIPLES   OF    FEEDING.  139 

ether  extract  .3,  and  the  carbohydrates  10.,   how   much 
protein  does  it  contain  ? 

[c)  If  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  food  is  i:  5.2,  the  protein 
2.8,  and  the  ether  extract  .8,  how  much  carbohydrate 
does  it  contain  ? 

4.  Wide  hnd  Narrow  Ratios. — When  the 
amount  of  carbohydrate  and  ether  extract  is 
large  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  protein, 
the  ratio  is  called  ivide.  For  example,  the  nu- 
tritive ratio  of  corn  stover  is  i :  20,  and  that  of 
oat  straw  1:33.7.  Both  of  these  would  be  called 
wide  ratios.  When  the  amount  of  heat-produ- 
cing elements  is  small  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  protein,  the  ratio  is  said  to  be  nar- 
roWy  as  in  oil  meal,  where  it  is  i:  1.7. 

In  Indian  corn  the  ratio  is  1:9.8,  and  is  called 
medium.  As  is  shown  by  the  table,  a  medium 
ratio  most  often  gives  the  best  result,  growing 
and  heavily  worked  animals  (as  young  cattle, 
1:4.5,  ^'^^  heavily  worked  horses,  1:6)  requir- 
ing a  narrower  ration — that  is,  containing  a 
greater  proportion  of  protein  to  carbohydrates 
— than  the  mature  animal,  or  animal,  or  those 
doing  light  work  (as,  18:24  months  old  dairy 
cattle,  1:8.5,  ^"<^  ^  horse  doing  light  work,  1:7). 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  protein  is  needed  in 
the  growing  and  working  animal  for  the  up- 
building of  tissues. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  no  wide  nutri- 
tive ratio  given  in  the  table,  as  in  that  case  the 


140  AGRICULTURE. 

protein  of  the  food  would  not  be  sufficient  to 
maintain  the  tissues  of  the  body.  Neither  is 
there  given  an  extremely  narrow  ratio,  for  that 
would  necessitate  the  consumption  of  protein 
for  the  production  of  heat  and  energy.  When 
a  food  containing  a  medium  nutritive  ratio  is  fed 
there  are  sufficient  carbohydrates  to  supply  the* 
heat  and  energy,  and  protein  enough  to  main- 
tain the  body,  and  either  to  build  up  additional 
tissues  in  growth  or  flesh,  or  to  be  used  in  the 
production  of  milk. 

5.  Compounding  Rations. — It  is  not  often  that 
any  one  kind  of  food  will  supply  the  desired 
ratio  of  nutrients,  so  it  is  necessary  to  combine 
several  kinds  in  such  proportions  as  to  give  that 
ratio  in  the  combined  food.  For  example,  if 
timothy  hay  (the  nutritive  ratio  of  which  is 
1 :  16.7)  forms  the  rough  food,  a  balanced  ration 
can  only  be  obtained  by  combining  with  it  some 
highly  concentrated  food — as,  cottonseed-meal, 
whose  nutritive  ratio  is  1:1.2;  while  if  hay 
from  clover,  cow-peas,  or  alfalfa,  is  used,  corn 
and  oats  will  be  sufficient,  if  used  in  proper  pro- 
portions, to  form  a  balanced  ration. 

Exercise  7. — Finding,  or  estimating,  a  ration  for  1,000 
pounds  of  live  weight  according  to  the  standard  in  the 
table. 

Problem  :  To  determine  the  ration  for  ahorse  weigh- 
ing 1^00  pounds  and  doing  light  work.  According  to 
the  table,  the  following  standard  is  required:  dry   mat- 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING.  141 

ter,  20  pounds;  protein,  1.5;  carbohydrates,  9.5  pounds; 
ether  extract,  0.4  pounds,  and  the  nutritive  ratio,  i:  7. 

All  that  is  necessary  is  to  find  such  a  combination  of 
foods  as  will  make  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:7  and  furnish 
approximately  20  pounds  of  dry  matter.  For  a  trial 
ratio^i,  assume  15  poundsof  red  clover  hay  and  10  pounds 
of  oats. 

First  Trial. — Required  to  find  the  number  of  pounds 
of  dry  matter,  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  ether  extract, 
respectively,  in  15  pounds  of  clover  hay  and  10  pounds 
of  oats. 

{a)  In  100  pounds  of  clover  hay  there  are,  according 
to  the  table,  84.7  pounds  of  dry  matter,  6.8  pounds  of 
protein,  35  8  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  and  1.7  pounds 
of  ether  extract. 

Then  in  15  pounds  of  clover  hay  there  are: 

15x^  =  12.7    of  dry  matter; 

15  X  -^  =    I-02  pounds  of  protein; 

"5^1^—    5.37  pounds  of  carbohydrates;  and 

15  X  7^  =      -25  pounds  of  ether  extract. 

(J))  In  100  pounds  of  oats  there  are,  according  to  the 
table,  89  pounds  of  dry  matter,  9.2  pounds  of  protein, 
47.3  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  and  4.2  pounds  of  ether 
extract. 

Then  in  10  pounds  of  oats  there  are: 

10X^  =  8.9    pounds  of  dry  matter; 
iox-^=    .92  pounds  of  protein; 
10  X  ^  =  4-73  pounds  of  carbohydrates;  and 
10  X  -^  =  4.2    pounds  of  ether  extract. 

Adding  the  amounts  of  these  different  substances  con- 
tained in; 


142 


AGRICULTURE. 


Dry 
.Matter. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

.S.37 
4  73 

Ether 
Extract. 

Clover,  15  lbs 

Oats,  10  lbs 

12.7 
8.9 

21.6 

1.02 
.92 

•25 
.42 

The  sum  is 

1.94 

10.10 

.67 

The  nutritive  ratio,  then,  is  i  to  the  quotient  obtained 
by  dividing  tlie  sum  of  10.10  +  (2.4  x  .67)=  ir.708  by 
1.94=6.     Therefore,  tlie  nutritive  ratio  is  1:6. 

Comparing  this  with  the  standard,  we  find 
that  the  ratio  is  that  given  for  a  horse  doing 
heavy  work,  while  the  nutritive  ratio  given  for  a 
horse  doing  light  work  is  given  as  i :  7.  A  horse 
at  light  work  requires  less  protein  than  one  do- 
ing heavy  work  ;  hence,  this  ratio  is  too  narrow. 
Then,  as  another  trial,  let  five  pounds  of  oat 
straw  be  substituted  for  five  pounds  of  the  clover 
hay. 

Second  7'/'/<^/.  — Required  to  find  the  number  of  pounds 
of  dry  matter,  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  ether  extract, 
respectively,  in  10  pounds  of  clover  hay  and  5  pounds  of 
oat  straw. 

{a)  In  100  pounds  of  clover  hay  there  are,  according 
to  the  table,  84.7  pounds  of  dry  matter,  6.8  pounds  of 
j)rotein,  35.8  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  and  1.7  pounds  of 
ether  extract. 

Then  in  10  pounds  of  clover  hay  there  are: 

10  X  100   —  8-47  pounds  of  dry  matter; 
'°Xi,„7  —    -68  pounds  of  protein; 
i°X  |,„^  =  3.58  pounds  of  carbohydrates;  and 
10  x-^,;^-  ~    -^7  pounds  of  ether  extract. 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING. 


143 


(^)  In  loo  pounds  of  oat  straw  there  are,  according 
to  the  table,  90.8  pounds  of  dry  matter,  1.2  pounds  of 
protein,  38.6  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  0.8  pounds  of 
ether  extract. 

Then  in  5  pounds  of  oat  straw  there  are: 

5  X^  —  4-54  pounds  of  dry  matter; 

5  x-j~-  =    .06  pounds  of  protein; 

5  X^  =  1-93  pounds  of  carbohydrates;  and 

5  X  -^  =    .04  pounds  of  ether  extract. 

Adding  the  amounts  of  these  different  substances  con- 
tained in: 


Clover,  10  lbs.  . 
Oats,  10  lbs.  .  . 
Oat  straw,  5  lbs. 

The  siun  is     . 


Dry 
Matter. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Ether 
Extract. 

8.47 

8.9 

4-54 

.68 
.06 

4-7.S 
I  9,3 

•17 
.42 
.04 

21.91 

1.66 

10.24 

.63 

The  nutritive  ratio   is  1:7. 

Comparing  this  second  trial  ration  with  that 
of  the  standard,  we  find  that  the  nutritive  ratio 
is  that  given  for  a  horse  doing  light  work. 

Exercise  8. — (i)  For  fattening  cattle,  compound  a 
ration  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:5.4  containing  two 
different  kinds  of  roughage  and  one  concentrate. 

(2)  For  a  milch  cow,  compound  a  ration  consisting  of 
red  clover,  hay,  corn  silage,  oat  straw,  and  wheat  bran, 
and  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:7,  and  appioximating 
25  pounds  of  dry  matter. 

(3)  For  cattle,  compound  a  maintenance  ration  hav- 
ing a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:10,  and  approximating  18 
pounds  of  dry  matter. 


144  AGRICULTURE. 

(4)  (a)  Let  each  student  compute  the  nutritive  ratio 
of  a  ration  with  which  he  is  actually  feeding,  or  knows 
is  being  fed,  to  a  cow  or  a  horse. 

(d)  Does  the  condition  of  the  animal  justify  the  con- 
tinuance of  this  ration  ?     Why? 

(c)  How  does  this  nutritive  ratio  compare  with  that  of 
the  standard  given  for  an  animal  under  similar  condi- 
tions. 

(d)  If  this  ratio  is  too  wide  or  too  narrow,  is  it  on  ac- 
count of  the  kinds  of  food,  or  on  account  of  the  propor- 
tion of  the  different  kinds  of  food  ?  Modify  this  ration 
so  that  the  nutritive  ratio  will  agree  with  that  of  the 
standard. 

^.—FEEDING  STUFFS. 

Wherever  it  is  possible,  the  food  fed  to  the 
stock  should  be  grown  on  the  farm  and  not 
bought. 

In  deciding  upon  a  ration  for  a  given  animal, 
the  stockman  should  know  two  things:  (i) 
what  the  animal  needs  ;  (2)  what  the  food 
contains.  Then  he  can  determine  what  foods 
will  supply  the  demands  of  the  animal  in  ques- 
tion. 

I.  Palatability 

of  foods  is  of  no  little  importance,  for  if  from 
any  reason  the  animal  does  not  relish  the  food, 
enough  will  not  be  eaten  to  produce  any  gain. 
Animals  tire  of  the  same  food  used  continuous- 
ly, just  as  man  does;  hence  an  occasional  change 
in  the  food  is  a  good  plan,  but  this  should  be 
done  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  materially 
change  the  nutritive  ratio. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING.  145 

II.  Kinds. 

1.  Concentrate. — A  food  which  contains  a 
minimum  amount  of  crude  fiber  and  water  in 
proportion  to  the  nutrients  is  called  a  concen- 
trate. 

2.  Roughage. — A  food  which  contains  a  large 
amount  of  crude  fiber  or  of  water  in  proportion 
to  its  nutritive  elements  is  called  roughage, 
coarse  food,  or  forage. 

The  element  of  bulk  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  determining  a  ration,  especially  for 
a  ruminant.  If  a  food  is  too  concentrated,  a 
sufficient  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  do  not 
distend  the  digestive  organs,  and  the  juices  of 
the  stomach  and  intestines  cannot  work  upon 
the  food  effectively.  If  the  food  is  too  bulky, 
enough  cannot  be  eaten  to  supply  the  proper 
nutrients,  or  too  much  energy  is  consumed  in 
the  eating  of  it.  About  two-thirds  of  the  dry 
matter  in  the  ration  for  ruminants  should  be 
coarse  food  and  one-third  concentrated  food  ; 
for  work-horses,  the  food  should  be  about  half 
and  half  of  each. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  tables,  the  concen- 
trates contain  a  much  greater  per  cent,  of  pro- 
tein than  the  coarse  foods  do.  Those  having 
the  greatest  proportion  of  protein  (see  table) 
are  cottonseed-meal,  soy-bean,  buckwheat  shorts, 
and  cow-peas. 

There   are   two  kinds  of  roughage  :  (i)  dry 


146  AGRICULTURE. 

forage — as,  hay,  fodders,  etc. — and  (2)  green 
forage — as,  pasture,  soiling  crops,  and  silage. 

(2)  Green  Forage. — (a)  Pasture. — Animals 
on  pasture  seem  to  be  in  their  natural  environ- 
ment and  need  very  little  concentrated  food 
compared  with  those  of  the  same  grade  fed  upon 
dry  forage.  Green  food  contains  a  much  less 
per  cent,  of  digestible  nutrients  on  account  of 
the  large  per  cent,  of  water,  and  hence  it  is 
necessary  to  eat  a  greater  quantity,  and  an  ani- 
mal in  pasture  expends  much  energy  in  walking 
over  the  pasture  to  secure  the  food  and  in  mas- 
ticating the  extra  quantity.  For  this  reason  the 
method  of  feeding  called  "  soiling  "  is  advocated 
by  many  experiment  stations. 

(<^)  Soiling  is  the  feeding  of  forage  crops 
green  to  stock  confined  in  covered  barn-yards. 
Experiments  conducted  at  various  stations  prove 
that  a  greater  number  of  animals  can  be  fed 
from  the  same  number  of  acres  than  can  be  fed 
by  pasturing. 

At  the  Wisconsin  experiment  station  it  was 
found  that  one  acre  of  a  soiling  crop  equaled 
two  and  a  half  acres  of  good  blue-grass  pas- 
ture for  feeding  dairy  cows.  A  dairy  cow 
requires  from  60  to  100  pounds  of  green  forage 
daily. 

It  is  objected  that  the  practice  of  soiling  in- 
volves extra  work.  But  green  forage  need  only 
be  gathered  twice  a  week  if  thinly  spread   upon 


PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING.  147 

the  floor  of  the  barn,  and  most  crops  can  be  cut 
with  the  mower;  so,  after  all,  it  will  not  require 
much  time.  Especially  should  this  plan  of  feed- 
ing supplement  the  pasture  by  supplying  some 
green  forage — as,  rye  early  in  the  spring,  and 
soy-beans  when  the  pasture  becomes  short  and 
dry  in  midsummer  (see  "  Rotation  of  Crops," 
Course  7). 

It  is  at  this  latter  period  that  the  heat  is  so 
oppressive  and  the  flies  so  troublesome,  and  if 
the  stock  can  be  housed  in  a  darkened  but  well- 
ventilated  place  in  the  daytime,  and  turned  into 
the  pasture  at  night,  much  greater  comfort  to 
the  animal  and  a  gain  in  milk  or  flesh  will  re- 
sult. 

There  is  another  economical  problem  which 
the  covered  barn-yard  (see  Fig.  29)  solves.  It 
is  that  of  saving  the  waste,  that  it  may  be  re- 
turned to  the  soil  as  a  fertilizer  (see  "  Fertiliz- 
ers ").  Not  only  is  the  soil  benefited  by  the 
fertilizing  material  returned  to  it,  but  soiling 
crops  are  very  useful  in  helping  to  form  the 
courses  in  rotation  (see  Courses  5  and  7),  which 
are  most  beneficial  to  the  soil  and  most  profit- 
able to  the  farmer. 

(^)  Silage. — There  is  a  time  of  year  in  the 
greater  portion  of  this  country  when  neither 
pasturing  nor  soiling  is  possible.  Science  has 
again  come  to  the  aid  of  the  stockman,  and 
found  a  way  to  provide  green  food  in  winter. 


148  AGRICULTURE. 

It  is  by  preserving  green  forage  in  a  silo*  (see 
Fig.  35),  on  the  same  principle  that  green  fruits 
are  preserved  for  winter  use  by  canning — that 
is,  by  excluding  the  air. 

The  advantages  of  silage  are  stated  as  fol- 
lows by  Professor  H.  J.  Waters,  Director  of 
the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  : 

'•(«)  Green  and  succulent  food  is  thereby 
provided  for  the  winter  months. 

"(<5)  The  green  plant  is  more  palatable,  the 
coarser  parts  of  the  stalk  being  much  more  com- 
pletely consumed  when  made  into  silage. 

"(^)  A  large  quantity  of  material  may  be 
stored  in  a  comparatively  small  space. 

"(rti')  The  harvesting  is  done  during  the  pleas- 
ant weather  in  the  early  fall,  and  the  drudgery 
of  handling  dry  stover  in  winter  is  obviated. f 

"(^)  It  is  cheaper,  on  the  whole,  than  to  be 
:t  the  expense  of  husking  and  grinding  the  ears 
ind  cutting  and  shredding  the  stover.  It  does 
not  appear  to  affect  the  digestibility  of  the  ma- 
terial either  favorably  or  unfavorably." 

If  the  silage  is  not  all  used  during  the  winter 
months,  it  can  be  fed  when  needed  in  the  sum- 
mer to  take  the  place  of  soiling  crops. 


*  For  full  discussion  of  silo  and  silage,  send  for  a  book  on 
silage,  by  F.  W.  Woll,  Silver  Manufacturing  Co.,  Salem,  Ohio. 

f  Since  the  forage  used  for  silage  is  put  into  the  silo  as  soon 
as  cut,  there  is  no  occasion  for  loss  by  unfavorable  weather,  as 
is  so  often  the  case  with  hay. 


FIG.  35. — ROUND   SILO.       (MISSOURI    AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGE    FARM.) 
Diameter,  18  feet;  hight,  30  feet;  capacity,  150  tons.    Cost,  ^175.00. 


149 


150  AGRICULTURE. 

Corn  and  clover  are  most  often  used  in  mak- 
ing silage.  Silage  is  recommended  not  only  as 
an  excellent  food  for  the  dairy  cow  and  for 
sheep,  but  it  forms  a  good  substitute  for  oats  as 
a  food  for  fattening  cattle.  It  should  constitute 
from  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  the  rough- 
age for  cows ;  alfalfa,  clover,  or  cow-peas  consti- 
tuting the  remainder  of  the  coarse  food. 

i^.— REFERENCES. 

"  Feeds  and  Feeding."  Henry.  Published  by  the  author. 
Madison,  Wisconsin. 

"  The  Fertility  of  the  Land."     Roberts.     lo. 

"Feeding  the  Dairy  Cow."  Bulletin  58,  Missouri  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station. 

"Stock  Feeding."  Bulletin  67,  South  Carolina  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

"Feeding  Stuffs."  Bulletin  107.  Virginia  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station. 

"  Feeding  Stuffs."  Bulletin  12,  West  Virginia  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

"Concentrated  Feeding  Stuffs."  Bulletin  165,  New  Jersey 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"  Stock  Feeding."     Bulletin  67. 

"  Feeding  of  Animals."     Jordan.     10. 


OUTLINE    OF   CHAPTER    VII. 

ROTATION    OF    CROPS. 

y^.— INFLUENCE  OF  ROTATION  UPON  PLANT- 
FOOD. 

I.  Preserves  Food  Supply. 

1.  Prevents  Exhaustion. 

2.  Prevents  Loss  by  Exposure 

II.  Increases  Food  Supply. 

1.  Re  tide  rs  Plant- food  Available. 

2.  Brings   Up  Plant-food  from  the  Subsoil. 

3.  Facilitates  Fertilizing. 

^.—ROTATION  AS  AFFECTING  THE    ENEMIES 
OF  PLANTS. 

I.  Eradicates  Weeds. 
II.  Exterminates  Insect  Pests. 

C— PROFIT  IN  ROTATION. 

Z>.— SELECTING   THE    COURSE    IN   ROTATION, 
I.  What  Can  Be  Successfully  Grown  ? 
II.  What  Can  Be  Successfully  Used  or  Sold? 

^.—BETTER  DISTRIBUTION  OF  LABOR. 

/^.—SUGGESTED  COURSES  IN  ROTATION. 

a— TABLE  OF  SOILING  CROPS. 

ZT.— CATCH,  OR  COVER,  CROPS. 

/.—KEEPING  ACCURATE  ACCOUNTS. 

Exercise  9. 

/.—REFERENCES. 

151 


CHAPTER    VII. 

ROTATION    OF    CROPS. 

Many  of  the  problems  that  confront  the 
farmer  of  the  present  day  might  have  been 
avoided  had  Rotation  of  Crops  been  more  often 
practiced  by  our  fathers.  The  productiveness 
of  the  soil  cannot  continue  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time  unless  rotation,  or  change  of 
crops,  is  practiced,  or  fertilizers  heavily  applied. 

/?.— INFLUENCE  OF  ROTATION  UPON  PLANT- 
FOOD. 

I.  Preserves  Food  Supply. 

I.  Prevents  Exhaustion. — Different  plants  re- 
quire different  proportions  of  the  various  foods. 
If  the  same  crop — as,  wheat  or  cotton— is  grown 
continuously  for  a  number  of  years,  the  soil  in 
that  field  may  become  so  deficient  in  certain 
elements  essential  to  that  particular  crop  as  to 
very  materially  lessen  the  yield ;  while  if  some 
other  crop,  as  clover,  be  sown,  the  yield  may  be 
very  heavy,  and  hence  the  crop  may  be  more 
profitable,  even  at  a  lower  price.  Crops  should 
be  so  selected  that  different  plant-foods — or,  at 
least,  different  proportions  of  the  plant-foods — 
will  be  demanded  from  the  soil  each  year. 

153 


154  AGRICULTURE. 

2.  Prevents  Loss  by  Exposure. — The  mate- 
rials from  the  soil  are  not  only  taken  up  by  the 
plants,  but  continuous  free  and  open  cultivation 
exposes  the  humus  of  the  soil  to  the  sun  and  to 
the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  more  of  its  nitrogen 
is  made  soluble  than  can  be  taken  up  by  the 
plants;  hence,  it  is  washed  out  and  carried  away 
by  the  rains  (Fig.  8).  (See  under  "Cover 
Crops,"  p.  159.) 

II.  Increases  Food  Supply. 

1.  Renders  Plant-food  Available. — Repetition 
of  certain  kinds  of  crops — as,  timothy  or  blue- 
grass — tends  to  use  up  the  food  faster  than  it  is 
rendered  available,  while  change  of  crops  and 
consequent  cultivation  hastens  the  breaking  up 
of  the  chemical  compounds  in  the  soil,  and  thus 
renders  plant-food  available. 

2.  Brings  Up  Plant-food  frorn  the  Subsoil. — 
The  food  supply  may  be  further  increased  by 
rotating  clover,  or  any  legume  (all  of  which 
have  deep-feeding  roots),  with  a  crop  of  corn,  or 
wheat  (Fig.  36),  which  has  surface-feeding 
roots.  In  this  way  the  deep-feeding  roots  bring 
up  food  elements  from  the  subsoil,  and  when 
these  roots  decay  these  food  materials  are  ac- 
cessible to  the  surface-feeding  plants. 

3.  Facilitates  Fertilizing. — Rotation  not  only 
prevents  the  exhaustion  of  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  but  may  be  useful  in  making  artificial  fer- 


155 


156  AGRICULTURE. 

tilizing  successful.  For  example,  if  stable  com- 
post be  applied  immediately  preceding  crops  of 
small  grain — as,  wheat  or  oats — it  may  injure  the 
crop  by  tending  to  produce  straw  rather  than 
grain ;  while  if  it  be  applied  before  corn  is 
planted,  it  will  result  in  an  increased  yield  of 
corn,  and  a  better  condition  of  the  soil  for  sub- 
sequent crops  (see  Fig.  27,  "Showing  Effect  of 
Nitrate,"  p.  80). 

^.—ROTATION  AS  AFFECTING  THE    ENEMIES 
OF  PLANTS. 

I.  Eradicates  Weeds. 

Short  rotations  with  wheat  and  clover  tend 
to  eradicate  weeds.  If  a  field  becomes  overrun 
with  certain  weeds — as,  the  broad-leafed  plan- 
tains— they  may  be  eradicated  in  a  few  years  by 
short  rotations  of  winter  wheat,  or  rye,  with 
clover.  The  clover  should  be  sown  upon  the 
wheat  early  in  the  spring.  The  wheat  will  not 
be  damaged  by  the  weeds,  as  they  do  not  seed 
before  it  is  cut,  while  the  same  will  be  true  of 
the  clover  the  following  year.  The  clover  stub- 
ble should  be  plowed  at  once  to  avoid  the  seed- 
ing of  the  weeds. 

It  would  then  be  well  to  thoroughly  prepare 
the  soil  and  put  it  in  turnips,  or  some  hoed  crop, 
until  time  to  sow  the  fall  wheat,  when  the 
ground  may  be  prepared  by  harrowing. 


ROTATION    OF   CROPS.  157 

Certain  kinds  of  weeds  are  found  in  certain 
kinds  of  crops;  then,  if  the  field  is  weedy,  this 
particular  crop  should  not  be  grown  until  these 
weeds  are  killed  out. 

II.  Exterminates  Insect  Pests. 

Again,  certain  crops  are  more  apt  to  be  in- 
fested with  particular  insect  pests  (see  "  Enemies 
of  Plants"),  or  fungous  (parasitic)  plants.  If  it 
is  known  that  such  enemies  have  even  a  start 
upon  a  certain  field,  that  crop  should  not  be 
grown  upon  it  the  following  year,  nor  until  the 
pest,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  eradicated.  Co- 
operation of  neighbors  can  greatly  facilitate  this 
work. 

C— PROFIT  IN  ROTATION. 

If  there  is  one  crop  which  can  be  grown  upon 
a  field  that  is  more  profitable  than  another  crop, 
it  is  the  first  one  to  be  considered  in  the  system 
of  rotation.  This  crop,  however,  should  not  be 
repeatedly  grown,  but  such  a  rotation  should  be 
chosen  as  will  best  fit  the  ground  for  the  largest 
yield  of  the  best-paying  crop. 

Z).— SELECTING  THE    COURSE    IN   ROTATION. 

I.  What  Can  Be  Successfully  Grown? 

This  will  depend  upon  the  kind  of  soil,  the 
climate,  and  the  seasons.  The  poorer  the  soil 
the  shorter  the  course,  and  the  richer  the  soil 
the  longer  the  course  of  rotation  may  be. 


158  AGRICULTURE. 

II.  What  Can  Be  Successfully  Used  or  Sold? 

This  is  another  question  to  be  considered  in 
selecting  the  course  in  rotation.  The  answer 
to  this  question  will  depend  upon  the  farmer's 
facilities  for  keeping  and  feeding  certain  kinds 
of  stock,  or  upon  the  location  as  regards  markets 
for  farm  crops. 

^.—BETTER  DISTRIBUTION  OF  LABOR. 
Rotation  of  farm  crops  not  only  makes  better 
farms,  but  it  makes  better  men.  In  the  great 
grain  districts  the  work  requires  many  men  for 
a  short  time,  and  is  much  less  to  be  desired  than 
to  have  several  successive  crops,  which  distribute 
the  labor  throughout  the  year  and  enable  it  to 
be  done  by  a  less  number  of  men,  thus  making 
homes  and  true  civilization  possible.*  A  few 
courses  in  rotation  are  suggested  below. 

7^.— SUGGESTED  COURSES  IN  ROTATION. 

1.  Clover,  corn,  oats,  and  wheat. 

2.  Clover,  corn,  potatoes,  and  wheat. 

3.  Clover,  corn,  and  wheat. 

4.  Clover  and  timothy,  mixed,  two  years,  corn, 
wheat,  and  cow-peas. 

5.  Cow-peas  or  clover,  cotton,  and  wheat. 

6.  Peanuts,  cotton,  and  wheat. 

7.  For  soiling  crops  :  Rye,  soy-beans,  winter 
wheat,  and  clover. 


Roberts'   The  Ffrlility  of  I  he  Land,  p.  369. 


ROTATION   OF   CROPS. 
6\— TABLE  V. 

SOII^ING     CROPS.* 


159 


CROPS. 

Seed  per  Acre. 

Time  of 
Seeding. 

Area. 

Titne  of  Culling. 

Rye 

Wheat 

Red  clover  .... 

Grass  and  clover  . 

Vetch  and  oats  .   . 
Vetch  and  oats  .   . 
Peas  and  oats  . 

Peas  and  oats  .   . 

Barnyard  millet  . 
Barnyard  millet  . 

Soja  bean 

Corn 

2  bushels 

2  bushels 

2o  lbs. 

I  ^  bu.  red  top 

-  y^  bu.  timothy 

(  10  lbs.  r.  clover 

(  3  bu.  oats 

\  50  lbs.  vetch 

50  lbs.  vetch 

J  I J^  bu.  Canada 

1  I  ^  bu.  oats  .   . 

j  \Yi.  bu.  Canada 

1  lYi  bu.  oats 

I  peck 

I  peck 

18  quarts 

Sept.  10-15 

Sept.  10-15 

July  15-Aug.  I 

y  September 

>■    April  20 

April  30 

!•     April  20 

j-     April  30 

May  10 
May  25 
May  20 
May  20 
May  30 

July  15 

i      Aug.  5 

Vi  acre 
Vi  acre 

Y  acre 

%  acre 

Yi  acre 
Yi  acre 
Yt  acre 

Y  acre 

Yi  acre 
Yi  acre 
Yi  acre 
Yi  acre 
Yi  acre 
Yz  acre 
I  acre 

May  20 -Ma J'  30 
June  I -June  15 
June  15-June  25 

June  15-June  30 

June  25-July  10 
July  lo-July  20 
June  25-July  10 

July   10 

July  25-Aug.  10 
Aug.  lo-Aug.  20 
Aug.  25-Sept.  15 
Aug.  2s-Sept.  10 

Hungarian  .... 
Barley  and  peas .  . 

I  bushel 
(  I  Vi  bu.  peas 
1  iJ4  bu.  barley 

Sept.  20-Sept.  30 
Oct.  i-Oct.  20 

The  above  table  of  plants  ziscd  for  soiling 
may  be  helpful  in  selecting  short  crops  in  a 
rotation. 

ZT.— CATCH,  OR  COVER,  CROPS. 

Catch,  or  cover  crops — as,  crimson  clover,  cow- 
peas,  rye,  Kafifir-corn,  teosinte,  and  vetch — may 
often  be  grown  in  the  time  intervening  between 
the  principal  crops  of  the  year  with  very  little 
labor  and  often  with  much  profit.  A  field  which 
is  used  in  short  rotations  loses  no  more  of  its  fer- 
tility than  one  which  lies  idle  aud  loses  its  sub- 
stance by  exposure  to  the  weather,  or  gives  it  up 
to  weeds. 


Henry's  Feeds  and  Feeding,  p.  233. 


160  AGRICULTURE. 

/.—KEEPING  ACCURATE  ACCOUNTS. 

This  is  as  essential  on  the  farm  as  in  the  bank 
or  store  ;  for  the  farmer  should  know  just  what 
his  profit  is,  and  what  crops  pay  best.  This  can 
be  known  only  by  keeping  account  of  all  work 
done  and  money  expended  in  putting  in  and  in 
harvesting  the  crop,  and  in  the  feeding  or  mar- 
keting of  it. 

Exercise  9. — (a)  Each  student  should  carefully  pre- 
pare an  original  plan  for  a  course  in  rotation  upon  a 
poor  soil,  and  another  upon  a  fertile  soil,  in  his  own 
vicinity. 

(d)  Give  directions  for  the  preparation  of  the  soil  as 
regards  fertilization  and  tillage. 

(c)  Give  directions  and  reasons  for  the  disposition  of 
each  of  these  various  crops.  Is  it  to  be  fed,  or  sold  ? 
If  fed,  in  what  condition — green  or  dry?  To  what  ani- 
mals ? 

{a)  Make  an  estimate  of  the  probable  cost  of  seed  and 
work,  and  of  the  value  of  the  crop  ;  if  sold;  if  fed  ;  and 
calculate  the  gain. 

(<?)  Read  and  discuss  in  class  each  plan,  with  reasons. 
Be  able  to  defend  every  point  taken. 

/.—REFERENCES. 

"  Practices  in  Crop  Rotation."     Year-book,  igo2. 

"  The  Fertility  of  the  Land."     Roberts.     10. 

"  Fertilizers."     Voorhees.     1900.     10. 

"  First  Principles  of  Agriculture."     Voorhees.     10. 

"  The  Science  of  Agriculture."     Lloyd.     9. 

"  Soils  and  Crops  of  the  Farm."     Morrow  &  Hunt.     1902.     4. 


OUTLINE    OF    CHAPTER    VIII. 

MILK  AND    ITS   CARE. 

C.   H.   ECKLES, 
Dairy  Husbandry,  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

^.— MILK.* 
I.  Secretion. 
II.  Care  ot  Milk. 

1.  Sources  of  Abnormal  Odors, 

(i)  Certain  Foods. 

(2)  The  Air. 

(3)  Bacteria. 

2.  Keeping  Bacteria  Out  of  Milk. 

3.  Preventing  Grotvth  of  Bacteria. 

(i)   Low  Temperature. 
(2)  Pasteurization. 

FII.  Composition. 

1.  Butter  Fat. 

2.  Casein  and  Albumen. 

(i)  Casein. 
(2)  Albumen. 

3.  Milk  Sugar. 

4.  Ash. 

IV.  Coloi. 
V.  Variation  in  Quantity  and  Quality 

1.  Breed  of  Animals. 

2.  Individuality. 

3    Period  of  Lactation. 

4.  Feed. 

5.  External  Conditions. 

6.  First  and  Last  Milk  Drawn. 

7.  Intervals  betxveen  Milking s. 

161 


162  AGRICULTURE. 

VI.  The  Babcock  Test. 

1.  The  Need  of  a  Test  for  Butter  Fat. 

2.  The  Babcock  Method. 

(i)  Test-bottles. 

(2)  Pipette. 

(3)  Acid  Measure. 

(4)  Centrifugal  Machine. 

(5)  Sampling  Milk. 

(6)  Making  the  Test. 

(7)  Reading  the  Test. 

(8)  Testing  Skim-milk  and  Buttermilk. 

(9)  Testing  Cream. 

Weigh  Out  Cream  for  Testing. 

^.— CREAM. 
I.  Separation  of  Cream. 

1.  By  Gravity. 

(i)  Shallow  Pans, 

(2)  Deep  Setting. 

(3)  Dilution. 

2.  By  Centrifugal  Force. 
II.  Ripening  Cream. 

C— BUTTER. 
I.  Coloring. 
II.  Kinds  of  Churns. 

III.  Churning. 

1.  Temperature. 

2.  Other  Factors  Affecting  Time  of  Churning 

3.  When  to  Stop  Churning. 

IV.  Washing  Butter. 
V.  Salting. 

VI.  Working. 

VII.  Composition  of  Butter. 
VIII.  Overrun. 
IX.  Packing  and  Marketing. 

Z>.— REFERENCES. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

MILK    AND     ITS    CARE. 

C.   H.   ECKLES, 
Dairy  Husbandry,  Missouri  Agricultural  Ex feriiHent  Station, 

^.— MILK. 

I.  Secretion  of  Milk. 

Milk  is  a  fluid  secreted  by  the  mammary 
glands  of  all  animals  that  suckle  their  young. 
It  contains  all  the  elements  of  nutrition  neces- 
sary for  the  nourishment  of  the  young  animal 
in  a  palatable  and  easily  digested  form. 

The  material  forming  milk  is  all  taken  from 
the  blood,  but  changed  in  nature  by  the  secret- 
ing cells  so  that  no  constituent  of  milk,  except 
water,  is  found  in  the  blood  in   the   same   form. 

In  the  wild  state  the  cow  only  gave  milk 
enouofh  to  nourish  the  calf  until  it  could  subsist 
on  other  food.  Under  domestication  of  the 
cow  the  secretion  of  the  milk  has  been  greatly 
increased  by  careful  selection  and  liberal  feeding. 

II.  Care  of  MUk. 

The  conditions  under  which  milk  is  handled 
are  of  the  greatest  importance,  whether  it  be 
used  as  food  or  manufactured  into  butter  or 
cheese. 

I.  Sources  of  Abnormal  Gdors. — Milk  begins 
to   decompose    and    possesses    abnormal   odors 


164  AGRICULTURE. 

and  tastes  after  standing  for  some  time,  and 
occasionally  these  are  present  when  it  is  milked. 
There  are  three  common  sources  of  these  ob- 
jectionable tastes  and  odors  in  milk. 

(i)  Certain  Foods. — When  food  eaten  by 
cows  contains  any  strong  volatile  substance, 
this  will  be  carried  through  the  circulation  of 
the  cow  and  into  the  milk.  For  example,  when 
a  cow  eats  onions,  turnips,  or  even  some  strong 
weeds,  the  characteristic  odor  and  taste  may  be 
recognized  in  the  milk.  These  odors  may  be 
mostly  driven  off  by  heating  the  milk.  Ordi- 
narily very  little  trouble  is  experienced  from 
this  source,  as  the  common  feeds  have  no  notice- 
able effect  on  the  flavor  of  the  milk. 

(2)  The  Air. — Any  odors,  even  if  not  very 
pronounced,  rnay  be  readily  absorbed  from  the 
air  by  milk  or  butter.  Milk  exposed  to  the  air 
of  an  ill-kept  barn,  or  a  musty  cellar,  often  ab- 
sorbs odors  that  make  it  very  objectionable  for 
food. 

(3)  Bacteria. — l^he  most  common  cause  of 
objectionable  tastes  and  odors  of  milk  is  the 
action  of  various  bacteria.  Bacteria  of  many 
kinds  are  found  in  milk,  and  various  kinds  of 
fermentation  result  from  their  action.  In  addi- 
tion to  common  souring,  milk  may  be  decom- 
posed, giving  off  bad  odors,  may  become  ropy, 
or  bitter,  or  even  have  an  abnormal  color  due 
to  the  action  of  bacteria. 


MILK    AND    ITS    CARE. 


165 


Most  of  the 
bacteria  found  in 
milk  are  perfectly 
harmless,  al- 
though  at  times 
those  causing 
diseases,  such  as 
typhoid  fever, 
diphtheria,  and 
tuberculosis,  may 
get  into  the  milk. 
It  is  impossible 
to  keep  all  bac- 
teria out  of  milk, 
but  a  great  deal 
can  be  done  to- 
ward keeping 
them  out,  and 
keeping  those 
that  do  get  in 
from      growing 

(Fig-  Z7)- 

2.  Keeping  Bac- 


OoOo 


"  •  0  ",  o  ,  U  „  o 

0 

..  O 

o 
o 


o 

Oo 


°  o  "  o  °c^ 


'0^    °    o  O  o 


O 


o  oo 


o 


O 


a 


,o. 


n 


o 


o^ 


/e7^ia  Out  of  Milk. 
—  This  process 
may  be  summed 
up  in  one  word — 
cleanliness. 

The   bacteria   (Fig.    -X)!)   g^^"  into    milk   with 
dust  particles  from  many  sources,  but  the  most 


FIG.    37. PURE    AND    IMPURE    MII.K 

HIGHLY   MAGNIFIED. 

A.  pure  milk;  /?,  after  standing  in  a  warm  room 
for  a  few  hours  in  a  dirty  dish,  showing,  be- 
sides the  fat  globules,  many  forms  of 
bacteria. 


166  AGRICULTURE. 

common  and  the  worst  contamination  usually 
takes  place  in  the  barn.  Very  often  the  stable 
is  not  kept  clean,  the  body  of  the  cow  becomes 
soiled,  and,  during  milking,  dust  particles  from 
the  hair  become  loosened  and  drop  into  the 
milk-pail.  The  milker  may  wear  dirty  clothes, 
and  the  air  of  the  barn  may  be  full  of  dust,  or 
the  milk-vessels  may  not  be  perfectly  clean. 

The  number  of  bacteria  in  the  milk  can  be 
greatly  reduced  by  observing  the  utmost  clean- 
liness in  every  particular,  especially  about  the 
barn,  during  milking,  and  by  cleansing  the  uten- 
sils thoroughly.  All  milk-vessels  should  first  be 
rinsed  out  with  cold  water,  as  hot  water  coagu- 
lates the  albumen  and  makes  it  stick  to  the  ves- 
sels. After  this  rinsing,  they  should  be  thor- 
oughly scalded  and  sunned  to  kill  any  bacteria 
present. 

3.  Preventing  Growth  of  Bacteria. — Next  in 
importance  to  keeping  bacteria  out  of  milk  is 
preventing  those  that  do  get  in  from  growing 
rapidly. 

(i)  Low  Temperature  is  the  chief  factor  to 
be  relied  upon.  If  it  is  desired  to  keep  milk 
sweet  for  some  time,  it  should  be  cooled  at  once 
after  milking  to  50°  F.,  or  lower  if  possible.  If 
this  is  done,  and  this  temperature  maintained, 
milk  will  remain  sweet  several  days,  while  if  it 
is  allowed  to  femain  warm  it  will  sour  within 
twenty-four  hours. 


MILK    AND    ITS    CARE. 


167 


FIG.    38. — PASTEURIZING    APPARATUS. 


(2)    Pasteurization. — Another    method     of 
preventing   the  growth   of   bacteria  in   milk   is 
that    of     Pas- 
t  eurizatio  n 
(Fig.  38).  This 
consists    in 
heating     milk 
to  about   160° 
F.  for  twenty 
minutes,  then 
rapidly     cool- 
ing to  50°  F. 
This     kills 
about  99    per 
cent,  of  the  bacteria,  and  the  keeping  quality  of 
the  milk  is  very  much  improved. 
III.  Composition  of  Milk. 

The  milk  of  all  mammals  contains  practically 
the  same  constituents,  but  varies  greatly  in  the 
proportion  of  each.  The  average  composition 
of  cow's  milk  in  America  is  as  follows :  Water, 
87.5  per  cent.;  fat,  3.6  per  cent.;  casein,  2.9  per 
cent.;  albumen,  .5  per  cent.;  milk  sugar,  4.75 
per  cent.;  ash,  or  mineral,  .75  per  cent. 

I.  Butter  Fat. — The  butter  fat  is  commer- 
cially the  most  valuable  part  of  milk.  It  varies 
in  amount  more  than  any  other  constituent  of 
milk  except  water.  Wide  variations  from  the 
average  composition  are  constantly  found.  Fat 
seldom  is  less  than  2.5  per  cent.,  or  more  than 


168  AGRICULTURE. 

7  per  cent.  Butter  fat  is  found  in  milk  in  the 
form  of  minute  drops  of  oil,  called  globules. 
These  globules  vary  in  size  from  xoVrr  to  --^ohnj 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  (see  A,  Fig.  T,y).  The 
number  present  in  even  a  small  amount  of  milk 
is  beyond  comprehension.  This  fat  is  made  up 
of  a  mixture  of  ten  or  more  distinct  oils,  the 
more  important  of  which  are  steai^in,  pahnaiin, 
olein,  and  hutyriii.  The  first  two  mentioned 
melt  at  a  temperature  above  140°  F.,  while  olein 
is  liquid  at  32°  V .  The  hardness  of  a  certain 
lot  of  butter  depends  upon  the  proportion  of 
these  oils  present.  Green  food,  such  as  grass, 
increases  the  proportion  of  olein,  and  accounts 
for  the  soft  condition  usually  observed  in  butter 
made  during  the  summer  months. 

Butyrin  is  the  characteristic  fat  of  butter,  and 
is  found  only  in  butter  fat.  The  chemical  dif- 
ference between  butter  and  oleomargarine  is 
largely  the  absence  of  butyrin  in  the  latter. 

The  size  of  the  fat  globules  (F'ig.  'i^'])  in  milk 
varies  with  the  breed  of  the  cow,  the  feed,  and 
with  the  individual  animal.  It  is  of  some  im- 
portance on  account  of  the  relation  it  bears  to 
the  separation  of  cream  and  to  churning.  Large 
fat  globules  separate  from  the  milk  and  form 
cream  more  quickly  than  do  small  ones,  and 
with  somewhat  less  loss  of  butter  fat  in  the 
skim-milk.  Cream  composed  of  large  fat  glo- 
bules churns  more  rapidly. 


MILK    AND    ITS    CARE.  169 

2.  Casein  and  Albumen. — These  constituents 
vary  less  in  quantity  than  does  butter  fat.  They 
are  very  similar  in  composition,  and  serve  the 
same  purposes  as  food,  but  differ  widely  in  ap- 
pearance. They  differ  from  other  parts  of  milk 
by  containing  sulphur,  nitrogen,  and  phos- 
phorus. 

(i)  Casein. — This  constituent  of  milk  may  be 
seen  as  the  curd  which  forms  when  milk  sours. 
It  is  present  in  milk  in  a  very  finely  divided  con- 
dition in  combination  with  lime.  When  milk 
sours,  the  acid  unites  with  the  lime,  and  the 
casein  then  becomes  insoluble,  and  appears  as 
the  common  curd  of  sour  milk. 

When  milk  is  used  for  butter-making,  the 
most  of  the  casein  remains  in  the  skim-milk, 
some  goes  into  the  buttermilk,  and  a  small 
amount  into  the  butter,  making  upon  the  aver- 
age I  per  cent,  of  the  latter. 

Casein  is  an  important  part  of  cheese,  com- 
posing approximately  one-third  of  common 
cheese. 

(2)  Albumen. — This  substance,  as  found  in 
milk,  is  practically  the  same  as  the  white  of  an 
^&&-  ^t  differs  from  casein  in  being  entirely  in 
solution,  making  about  .5  per  cent.  When  milk  is 
heated  to  i6o°F.,  or  above,  the  albumen  is  coag- 
ulated, and  is  seen  as  a  tough  scum  on  the  sur- 
face. 

W^hen    milk    is    used  for   butter-makinp".    the 


170  AGRICULTURE. 

most  of  the  albumen  remains  with  the  skim-milk 
and  buttermilk.  In  cheese-making  albumen  re- 
mains in  the  whey,  and  is  not  incorporated  into 
the  cheese.  The  very  disagreeable  odors  char- 
acteristic of  decomposing  milk  are  largely  pro- 
duced from  albumen. 

J.  Milk  Sugar. — This  sugar,  known  by  the 
chemist  as  lactose,  has  the  same  composition  as 
common  cane  sugar  (C,2H220,,H20),  and  is 
found  only  in  milk.  It  appears,  when  separated, 
as  a  fine  white  powder,  with  a  mild,  sweet  taste. 
Milk  sugar  is  a  common  commercial  article,  be- 
ing usually  secured  from  whey  as  a  by-product 
of  cheese-making.  When  milk  is  used  for  butter- 
making  almost  all  the  sugar  remains  with  the 
skim-milk  and  buttermilk,  while  in  cheese-mak- 
ing it  remains  in  the  whey.  Its  chief  impor- 
tance in  butter  or  cheese  making  is  its  relation 
to  the  souring  of  milk  or  milk  products,  which 
is  due  to  the  decomposition  of  the  sugar  through 
the  action  of  minute  forms  of  plant  life  called 
bacteria.  By  this  act  of  decomposition,  lactic 
acid  is  produced  from  the  sugar,  and  this  gives 
the  common  sour  taste  and  causes  the  precipita- 
tion of  the  casein,  as  seen  in  soured  milk. 

4.  Ash. — This  is  the  portion  that  would  re- 
main if  milk  were  burned.  It  consists  of  a  mix- 
ture of  several  elements,  the  most  important 
being  lime,  iron,  potash,  magnesium,  sulphur, 
and  phosphorus.     These  mineral  matters  are  all 


MILK   AND    ITS   CARE.  171 

in    combination  with  the  casein    and   albumen, 
and  make  up  about  .7  per  cent,  of  average  milk. 

IV.  Color. 

The  normal  white  color  of  milk  is  mostly  due 
to  the  casein.  The  yellow  shade  observed  in 
varying-  degrees  is  due  to  a  specific  coloring 
matter  called  lactochrome,  which  is  combined 
with  the  butter  fat,  and  gives  butter  the  natural 
yellow  color.  The  amount  of  this  coloring  mat- 
ter varies  greatly,  being  affected  the  most  by 
the  feed  of  the  cow,  but  also  by  breed  and  in- 
dividuality of  the  cow.  Green  feeds,  as  grasses, 
give  the  highest  color,  while  dry  feeds,  as  hay 
and  grain^  the  least  color.  The  Guernsey  and 
Jersey  breeds  produce  the  highest  colored  milk 
and  butter;  the  Holstein  and  Ayrshire  the 
lightest  colored.  The  yellow  color  of  milk  is 
often  taken  as  an  index  of  its  richness,  but  this 
cannot  be  relied  upon,  and  is  of  little  value  as  a 
means  of  judging  the  quality  of  milk. 

V.  Variation  in  Quantity  and  Quality. 

I.  Breed. — Certain  breeds  of  cows  are  charac- 
terized by  producing  rich  milk,  and  others  by  pro- 
ducing unusually  large  quantities.  The  breeds 
that  produce  rich  milk  produce  a  less  quantity, 
on  the  average,  than  do  those  producing  the 
poorer  quality.  In  order  of  richness,  the  com- 
mon breeds  stand  as  follows  :  Jersey,  Guernsey, 
Short  Horn,  Red  Poll,  Ayrshire,  Holstein.  The 
Holstein    breed    stands    considerably  ahead   in 


FIG.   39. — A    GUERNSKV    ^kJW — CHARMANTE    OF    THE    GRON   14^ 

ADV.   R.   NO.   74. 
Test,  11,874.76  pounds  milk:  676  pouiuis  fat.     I-lorliam  Farms,  New  Jerrc 


FK;.    40. — A    JERSEY    row — IMP.   JERSEY    VENTURE    I22508. 

A.    J.    C.    C.    S2S5,    ;.    H.    B.    K.    S. 

l^iie  Tree  Herd,  Greetistinrg,  Ind. 


MILK  AND  ITS  CARE.  173 

amount  of  milk,  followed  by  the  Ayrshire,  Guern- 
sey, and  Jersey. 

2.  Individuality. — The  difference  between  in- 
dividual animals  in  the  same  breed  is  greater 
than  the  average  difference  between  breeds, 
both  as  to  quality  and  quantity  of  milk  pro- 
duced. This  factor  should  be  given  first  con- 
sideration in  estimating  the  value  of  an  animal 
for  dairy  purposes. 

3.  Period  of  Lactation. —  By  period  of  lacta- 
tion is  meant  one  complete  milking  period, 
usually  from  nine  months  to  one  year.  A  cow, 
as  a  rule,  produces  the  most  milk  per  day  within 
a  month  after  the  calf  is  born,  and  gradually  de- 
creases in  amount  until  the  secretion  ceases. 
The  lowest  per  cent,  of  butter  fat  usually  is 
found  at  the  time  of  greatest  production,  and 
increases  somewhat  as  the  flow  of  milk  de- 
creases. 

4.  Feed. — The  kind  and  amount  of  feed  have 
great  influence  on  the  quantity  of  milk  pro- 
duced, but  have  no  effect  on  the  per  cent,  of 
butter  fat,  although  it  is  believed  otherwise  by 
many  dairymen.  The  richness  of  a  cow's  milk 
is  as  natural  to  her  as  is  the  color  of  her  hair, 
and  is  affected  about  as  little  by  change  of 
feed. 

5.  Exter7ial  Conditions. — Many  other  things 
affect  the  quality  and  the  amount  of  milk  se- 
creted— as,    treatment     by    milker,     change    of 


FIG.   41. — AN    AVKbHlkE    COW — VIULA    UKUMMOND. 

icuoo  [jounds  of  milk  in  365  days  ;  test,  3.9  per  cent.  fat.     Riverside  Stock 
Farm,  Woodville,  N.  Y. 


174 


FIG.    42. — A    HOLSTEIN     COW. 
Owned  by  M  E.  Moore,  Cameron,  Mo. 


MILK   AND  ITS   CARE.  175 

weather,  sudden  fright,  milking  at  irregular  in- 
tervals, and  sickness. 

6.  First  and  Last  Milk  Drawn. — The  first 
milk  drawn  from  the  udder  at  any  milking  is 
much  poorer  in  quality  than  the  last.  The  first 
often  tests  as  low  as  i  to  1.5  per  cent,  fat,  and 
the  last  8  to  9  per  cent.  fat. 

7.  Intervals  between  Milkings. — When  the  in- 
tervals between  milkings  are  equal  in  length, 
the  morning  and  night  milk  is  usually  about  the 
same  in  quantity  and  quality.  When  the  inter- 
vals are  not  equal,  the  larger  amount,  but  the 
lower  per  cent,  fat,  follows  the  longer  interval. 

VI.  The  Babcock  Test. 

I .  Need  of  a  Test  for  Butter  Fat.  —  Milk  varies 
greatly  in  richness.  The  writer  once  tested  the 
milk  of  a  herd  of  cows  each  day  for  a  year.  The 
milk  of  one  cow  averaged  2.7  per  cent,  butter 
fat ;  that  of  another,  7  per  cent.  The  variation 
in  milk  from  different  herds,  although  less  ex- 
treme than  the  case  mentioned,  is  found  to  be 
very  marked ;  hence,  to  do  justice  to  all,  milk  is 
now  bought  or  sold  at  wholesale,  as  a  rule,  by 
the  test. 

The  creamery  or  cheese  factory  pays  a  cer- 
tain price  for  each  pound  of  butter  fat  as  ascer- 
tained by  the  test,  and  not  for  the  gallon  or 
hundredweight  of  milk.  This  does  away  with 
all  temptation  to  milk  adulteration  by  watering 
or  skimming  when  selling  by  the  test.      Milk 


170  AGRICULTURE. 

sold  at  retail  in  cities  is  required  in  most  places, 
either  by  state  or  city  law,  to  contain  not  less 
than  a  certain  per  cent,  of  butter  fat — usually  3 
or  3.25  per  cent. 

Problem. — A  owned  a  cow  giving  milk  which  averaged 
2.7  per  cent,  butter  fat.  B  owned  a  cow  giving  milk 
averaging  7  per  cent,  butter  fat. 

C  bought  one  gallon  (8.4  pounds)  of  milk  of  A  daily, 
from  March  ist  to  September  ist,  at  6  cents  a  quart. 

D  bought  milk  of  B  for  the  same  time,  buying  the 
same  amount  daily,  at  the  same  price  per  quart.  If 
butter  fat  was  worth  25  cents  per  pound  at  the  cream- 
ery, how  much  did  D  gain  by  buying  milk  of  B  instead 
of  A  for  the  six  months  named  ?  Did  he  pay  more  or 
less  than  the  milk  would  have  sold  for  by  the  test,  sup- 
posing that  a  gallon  of  the  milk  weighed  8.4  pounds? 
How  much  ? 

Another  and  possibly  the  greatest  value  of 
the  test  is  as  a  means  of  enabling  the  farmer 
to  judge  which  cows  are  profitable  and  which 
are  not.  The  writer  once  fed  two  Jersey  cows 
standing  side  by  side  the  same  kind  of  feed  and 
practically  the  same  amount  to  each.  During 
the  year  one  produced  145  pounds  of  butter, 
the  other  428  pounds. 

The  farmer  should  take  into  account  not  the 
per  cent,  of  butter  fat  alone,  but  the  amount  of 
milk  and  the  test  together.  The  following  is 
the  record  of  two  cows  in  the  same  herd: 

Pounds 
Milk 

No.  I 12,111 

No.  2 ^.523 


Pounds 

Pfi-  cent. 

Butter 

Butter  Fat 

538 

3.81 

532 

7.CX) 

MILK    AND   ITS   CARE.  17? 

In  this  case  it  will  be  observed  that  the  rich- 
ness of  the  milk  alone  is  not  a  fair  means  of 
judging  the  value  of  the  two  cows,  neither  is  the 
amount  of  milk  alone. 

2.  The  Babcock  Method. — The  method  gen- 
erally used  for  finding  the  amount  of  butter  fat 
in  milk  and  its  products  is  known  as  the  Bab- 
cock test,  and  has  done  more  to  revolutionize 
the  dairy  industry  than  any  other  invention  ex- 
cept the  centrifugal  cream  separator.  This 
method  was  invented  by  Dr.  Babcock,  of  the 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Sta*"ion,  in  1890.  It  is  an 
accurate,  rapid  method  for  finding  the  per  cent, 
of  butter  fat  in  milk,  cream,  skim-milk,  butter- 
milk, whey,  or  cheese.  In  this  system  sulphuric 
acid  is  used  to  dissolve  the  solids  other  than  fat 
in  milk,  and  the  fat  is  then  separated  by  centri- 
fugal force,  and  measured  on  a  graduated  scale. 
The  apparatus  includes  the  following  (Fig.  43)  : 
test-bottles,  17.6  centimeter  pipette,  acid  meas- 
ure, sulphuric  acid,  and   a   centrifugal   machine 

(Fig-  44)- 

(i)    Test-bottles.  —  The     test-bottles     are 

made  of  strong  glass,  to  withstand  sudden 
changes  of  temperature.  On  the  neck  is  a 
scale  graduated  from  o  to  10.  Each  whole  di- 
vision represents  i  per  cent.,  and  is  subdivided 
into  five  divisions,  each  one  reading  .2  percent. 
By  estimating  between  divisions,  the  reading  of 
the  test  may  be  made  to  .  i  per  cent. 


178 


AGRICULTURE. 


4L  > 


FIG.  43. — GLASSWARK  FOR  BABCOCK  TESTKR. 

a — Measuring  pipette,     b — Milk-testing  bottle,     c— Creaui-testing  bottle. 
d — Acid  measure. 


(2)  Pipette. — The  basis  of  the  test  is  18 
^rams  of  milk.  Asa  matter  of  convenience,  the 
amount  is  measured  and  not  weighed.  It  is 
found  that  a  pipette  holding  17.6  cubic  centi- 
meters to  the  mark  delivers  18  grams  of  milk. 
The  pipette  is  filled  by  suction  of  the  lips,  and 


MILK   AND    ITS    CARE. 


179 


the  top  of  the  pipette  closed  with  the  fore- 
finger. 

(3)  Acid  Measure. — This  holds  17.5  cubic 
centimeters,  and  is  usually  made  in  the  form  of 
a  cylinder  with  a  base. 

The  acid  used  is  that  known  as  commercial 
sulphuric  acid,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.81 
to  1.83.  If  the 
acid  be  a  little 
weak  the  fact  will 
be  known  by 
white  sediment 
appearing  under 
the  fat  column, 
and  this  may  be 
remedied  by 
usinga  little  more 
acid  in  another 
test.      If  the  acid 

be  too  strong  it  will  be  indicated  by  the 
column  of  the  fat  being  blackened  and  having 
black  sediment  below.  This  can  be  remedied 
by  using  somewhat  less  acid.  Acid  very  much 
stronger  or  weaker  than  the  standard  does  not 
give  satisfactory  results. 

(4)  Centrifugal  Machine. — Many  forms  of 
machines  are  made,  varying  in  capacity  from  two 
to  forty  test-bottles.  The  smaller  (Fig,  44) 
are  made  for  use  in  small  dairies,  and  run  by 
hand  ;  the  larger  ones  are  used  in  factory  work, 


FIG.  44. — HAND-POWER    BABCOCK    TESTER. 
This  style  is  made  especially  for  farm  use. 


180  AGRICULTURE. 

and  are  run  by  steam-power.  The  bottles 
should  always  be  arranged  so  that  the  machine 
will  be  balanced  before  running  it. 

The  speed  at  which  these  machines  are  to  be 
run  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  revolving 
wheel,  but  the  rim  should,  as  a  rule,  move  from 
60  to  70  feet  per  second. 

(5)  Sampling  Milk. — In  testing  milk  the 
greatest  care  is  necessary  to  get  a  fair  sample 
of  the  lot  to  be  tested.  The  entire  amount 
should  be  poured  from  one  vessel  to  another 
several  times  if  possible,  or,  if  this  cannot  be 
done,  it  should  be  stirred  thoroughly  from  top 
to  bottom.  Many  errors  are  made  by  not  secur- 
ing the  correct  average  sample. 

(6)  Making  the  Test. — (a)  Mix  the  milk  thoroughly, 
and  measure  sample  into  test-bottle.  (l>)  Add  measure 
of  acid  by  pouring  carefully  down  side  of  bottle  held  at 
slight  angle  from  perpendicular.*  (c)  Mix  thoroughly 
by  shaking  with  a  rotary  motion  until  the  liquid  be- 
comes an  even  chocolate  brown  color,  (d)  Run  in  a 
centrifugal  machine  five  minutes  at  correct  speed,  (e) 
Stop  and  fill  to  base  of  neck  with  hot  water  or  distilled 
water,  150"  F.  or  above.  (/)  Whirl  3  minutes,  then  fill 
with  hot  water  to  7  or  9  per  cent.  mark. .  (g)  Whirl  2 
minutes  and  make  reading. 

(7)  Reading  the  Test. — Care  must  be  taken 
to  keep  the  contents  of  the  test-bottle  hot  and 
the  fat  entirely  liquid.      It  is  at  times  necessary 

*  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  allow  the  acid  to  come  in  contact 
with  the  fingers  or  clothing. 


MILK    AND   ITS    CARE.  181 

to  place  the  bottle  in  hot  water  between  whirl- 
ings before  making  the  reading.  The  reading 
of  the  fat  column  is  taken  from  the  extreme  top 
to  the  extreme  bottom. 

(8)  Testing  Skim-milk  and  Buttermilk. 
— The  operator  of  a  butter  or  cheese  factory- 
should  keep  close  watch  on  the  losses  of  butter 
fat  in  the  skim-milk  and  buttermilk  by  making 
frequent  tests.  For  testing  these  products 
exactly  the  same  method  is  used  as  described 
for  testing  milk,  except  a  special  kind  of  bottle, 
having  two  necks,  is  used,  which  allows  finer 
readings  to  be  made.  Each  small  division  on 
these  bottles  reads  .05  of  i  per  cent.,  and  by 
estimating  readings  can  be  made  to  .01  of  i  per 
cent. 

(9)  Testing  Cream. — It  is  far  more  difficult 
to  make  an  accurate  test  of  butter  fat  in  cream 
than  in  milk.  Cream  varies  greatly  in  amount 
of  butter  fat  present,  ranging  from  12  or  15  per 
cent,  to  60  per  cent,  of  butter  fat.  As  the  milk 
test-bottle  only  reads  to  10  per  cent.,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  special  testing-bottle  for  cream 
where  much  testing  is  to  be  done. 

Cream  can  be  tested  in  ordinary  milk  test- 
bottles  by  adding  two  measures  of  water  to  one 
of  cream,  then  testing  the  mixture  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  milk,  multiplying  the  reading  by 
three.  When  the  common  cream  test-bottles 
are  at  hand  which  read  to  30  per  cent.,  the  17.6 


182  AGRICULTURE. 

milk  pipette  may  be  used  and  the  testing  carried 
out  the  same  as  with  milk,  except  only  about 
three-fourths  the  usual  amount  of  acid  is  used. 

If  the  cream  has  more  than  30  per  cent,  of 
fat  it  cannot  be  read  on  the  scale  on  the  bottle. 
U  nder  these  circumstances  one  measure  of  cream 
and  one  of  water  may  be  mixed  together,  and  a 
test  made  of  the  mixture,  doubling  the  readings. 

Weigh  Out  Cream  for  Testing. — The  fore- 
going methods  of  testing  cream  are  accurate 
enough  for  some  purposes,  but  when  cream  is 
bought  and  sold  by  the  per  cent,  of  butter  fat 
the  amount  of  cream  taken  as  a  sample  for  test- 
ing should  be  lueigheci  out  and  not  measured. 
The  measuring  of  cream  introduces  several 
errors  which  cannot  be  discussed  in  detail  here, 
but  all  tend  to  make  the  result  of  the  test  too 
small.  The  chief  error  affecting  accuracy  of 
measuring  cream  is  the  difference  in  specific 
gravity  of  cream  and  milk.  The  i  7.6  c.c.  pipette 
delivers  18  grams  of  milk,  but  as  cream  is  lighter 
than  milk,  does  not  deliver  18  grams  of  cream. 

To  avoid  all  these  errors,  small  balancers  are 
used,  and  18  grams  of  cream  weighed  out  into 
the  test-bottle. 

i?.— CREAM. 

I.  Separation  of  Cream. 

Cream  is  that  portion  of  milk  into  which  most 
of  the  fat  globules  have  been  gathered.  It  has 
the  same  constituents  as  milk,  but  in  a  different 


MILK    AND    ITS   CARE.  183 

proportion,  due  to  the  large  amount  of  fat 
present. 

Cream  is  separated  from  milk  for  food  pur- 
poses, and  as  a  matter  of  convenience  and  econ- 
omy in  making  butter.  Butter  can  be  made, 
and  is  made  in  some  countries,  by  churning 
milk.  Cream  may  contain  from  12  to  60  per 
cent,  of  butter  fat.  Cream  as  sold  at  retail 
usually  has  from  18  to  20  per  cent.,  and  a  very 
rich  cream  has  from  35  to  45  per  cent,  of  fat. 
The  apparent  thickness  of  cream  is  not  a  reli- 
able means  of  judging  its  real  quality.  Cream 
is  separated  from  milk  by  taking  advantage  of 
the  difference  in  specific  gravity  between  the 
fat  globules  and  the  remainder  of  the  milk. 
We  have  two  general  systems  of  separating 
cream.  Both  take  advantage  of  the  difference 
in  specific  gravity  already  mentioned. 

I.  By  Gravity. — If  milk  be  allowed  to  remain 
undisturbed  in  a  vessel  of  any  kind,  the  fat  glob- 
ules, being  slightly  lighter  than  the  other  con- 
stituents, gradually  rise  to  the  top.  This  is  the 
oldest  and,  until  recent  years,  the  only  method 
of  separation  in  use. 

There  are  two  methods  of  gravity  creaming 
in  common  use  :  shallow  pans,  and  deep  setting. 

(i)  Shallow     Pans. — Although    the    oldest 

and  least  effective  in  every  way,  this  is  still  the 

most  common  method  used  in  many  localities. 

"  As  generally  used,  the  milk  is  placed  in  shallow 


184  AGRICULTURE. 

pans  or  crocks,  kept  at  a  rather  low  tempera 
ture,  as  in  a  cellar,  until  the  cream  has  risen.  It 
is  then  skimmed  off  with  a  flat  skimmer. 

The  conditions  most  favorable  for  this  system 
is  a  layer  of  milk  not  over  four  inches  deep  and 
cooled  rapidly  to  a  temperature  of  about  60°  F., 
and  allowed  to  stand  36  hours  before  skimming. 
This  separation  of  the  cream  is  not  very  com- 
plete by  this  method,  and  in  this  respect  it  ranks 
lowest  of  all  systems  used.  On  an  average, 
about  one-fourth  of  the  butter  fat  is  lost  in  the 
skim-milk  when  using  the  shallow  pans.  The 
quality  of  cream  for  butter-making  purpose  is 
also  the  poorest.  On  account  of  the  large  sur- 
face exposed  to  the  air  during  the  rising  of  the 
cream,  any  obnoxious  odors  of  the  atmosphere 
are  readily  absorbed,  and  this  exposure  also 
makes  conditions  favorable  for  the  formation  of 
strong,  undesirable  tastes  in  the  cream  and  but- 
ter. Cream  from  this  system  is  in  condition 
for  food  purposes  only  when  skimmed  off  much 
sooner  than  would  be  done  when  used  for  butter- 
making. 

(2)  Deep  Setting. — The  deep-setting  system 
consists  in  placing  the  milk  in  cans  about  twenty 
inches  deep  and  six  inches  in  diameter  (Pig.  45), 
set  in  water  which  should  be  kept  at  40°  F.,  or 
below,  for  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours.  At  the 
end  of  this  time  skimming  is  done  by  using  a 
conical   dipper,    or    drawing  off    first   the  skim- 


186  AGRICULTURE. 

milk  and  then  the  cream  from  a  faucet  in  the 
bottom  of  the  can  (Fig.  45).  This  system  is 
in  general  use  in  some  localities,  and  with 
general  satisfaction.  The  deep  setting  ranks, 
both  in  thoroughness  of  separation  and  quality 
of  cream  for  food  and  butter-making,  next  to 
the  centrifugal  separator.  Under  proper  con- 
ditions, by  its  use  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  the 
butter  fat  should  be  secured  in  the  cream.  The 
cream  from  this  system  is  rather  low  in  but- 
ter fat,  as  a  rule  testing  from  18  to  20  per 
cent.  fat. 

(3)  Dilution. — Within  recent  years  an  old 
plan  of  diluting  milk  with  cold  water  has  been 
revived,  and  devices  for  using  this  method  have 
been  sold  very  extensively  in  many  places  under 
the  name  of  "water  separators,"  "aquatic  sep- 
arators," etc.  The  general  plan  is  to  add  cold 
water  equal  in  volume  to  the  milk.  Instead  of 
ranking  with  the  cream  separator,  in  whose  name 
they  are  wrongfully  given,  they  rank  with  the 
shallow  pan  in  thoroughness  of  separation.  As 
a  rule,  from  20  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  butter  fat 
is  lost  in  the  skim-milk.  The  diluted  condition 
of  the  skim-milk  is  another  disadvantage.  The 
quality  of  the  cream  is  better  than  that  of  the 
shallow  pan,  and  it  is  more  convenient. 

2.  By  Ce7itrifugal  Force. — The  centrifugal 
separator  (Fig.  46)  has  revolutionized  the  dairy 
industry  within  recent  years.     The  first  centri- 


MILK    AND    ITS   CARE. 


187 


fugal  separators  were  put  in  practical  use  in 
Europe  about  1879,  but  were  not  in  general  use 
until  ten  years  later. 

At  present  they  are  considered  indispensable 


FIG.  46. — A    MODERN    HAND-POWER    CREAM    SEPARATOR. 

This  separator  has  a  capacity  of  450  pounds  of  milk  per  hour.    The  bowl  on  the 
right  generates  the  centrifugal  force  by  revolving  rapidly. 


to  the  successful  dairyman.  In  the  separator 
the  centrifugal  force  generated  by  a  rapidly  re- 
volving bowl  takes  the  place  of  gravity  and  acts 
with  a  force  very  much  greater.  The  milk  flows 
into  the  revolving  bowl  (Fig.  46)  in  a  continu- 


188  AGRICULTURE. 

ous  Stream,  while  the  cream  flows  from  one 
opening  and  the  skim-milk  from  another. 

As  the  milk  flows  into  the  revolving  bowl,  it 
is  acted  upon  by  centrifugal  force,  and  flies  to 
the  outside  wall  of  the  bowl.  The  skim-milk, 
being  heavier  than  the  cream,  is  forced  outward 
with  oreater  force,  and  seeks  the  outside  of  the 
bowl,  forcing  the  lighter  cream  toward  the  cen- 
ter. Near  the  outer  edge  of  the  bowl  are  open- 
ings of  small  tubes,  into  which  the  skim-milk 
flows  and  through  them  passes  out  of  the  bowl. 
Near  the  center  of  the  bowl  is  the  opening  of  a 
small  tube,  which  carries  out  a  constant  stream 
of  cream. 

A  number  of  conditions  affect  the  thorough- 
ness of  separation  with  a  centrifugal  separator, 
especially  the  speed  of  machine,  the  tempera- 
ture of  milk,  and  the  rate  of  inflow  of  milk. 
The  most  favorable  temperature  for  separating 
milk  is  from  85°  to  100°  F.  When  the  temper- 
ature falls  much  below  80°,  the  loss  of  butter 
fat  with  the  skim-milk  begins  to  increase.  Some 
types  of  separators  are  much  more  sensitive  to 
low  temperature  than  are  others. 

The  proportion  of  the  milk  taken  out  as 
cream  can  be  changed  in  most  separators  with- 
out changing  the  thoroughness  of  separation 
by  slightly  turning  what  is  called  the  cream 
screw.  By  this  means  most  separators  may  be 
adjusted   to  separate  from  10  to  50  per  cent,  of 


MILK    AND    ITS    CARE.  189 

butter  fat.  The  centrifugal  separator  should 
remove  about  98  per  cent,  of  the  butter  fat  in 
the  form  of  cream.  The  cream  from  the  sepa- 
rator, being"  removed  while  the  milk  is  sweet,  is 
in  the  best  condition  for  food  or  for  butter- 
making  purposes.  Separators  vary  in  capacity 
from  150  to  4,000  pounds  of  milk  per  hour. 

Problem.- — A  farmer  feeds  to  hogs  5  gallons  (42.5 
pounds)  of  skim-milk  daily  from  June  ist  to  December 
ist.  What  will  be  his  loss,  supposing  that  butter  aver- 
aged 18  cents  per  pound,  and  he  sells  his  hogs  for  $5.00 
per  hundred  pounds,  if  he  separated  his  cream  by  the 
gravity  process — 

(a)  With  shallow  pans  ? 

{^)  With  cans  20  inches  deep? 

(c)  If  he  used  the  centrifugal  separator? 

(d)  By  which  method  of  separation  would  he  lose 
most,  and  how  much  more  than  by  each  of  the  other 
two  methods  ? 

II.  Ripening  Cream. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  milk  which  is  al- 
lowed to  stand  in  a  warm  place  for  a  few  hours 
begins  to  sour  and  finally  coagulates.  This  is  a 
process  of  fermentation,  and  is  due  to  the 
growth  of  an  immense  number  of  living  organ- 
isms called  bacteria.  These  bacteria  are  not  in 
the  milk  when  it  leaves  the  animal  body,  but 
gain  access  from  many  sources,  such  as  unclean 
utensils  and  dust  from  the  air. 

The  souring  fermentation  is  undesirable  in 
milk  to  be  used  for  food,  but  is  a  necessary  part 


190  AGRICULTURE. 

of  making  the  best  butter.  The  consumers  of 
butter  prefer  that  it  have  the  peculiar  taste 
which  is  characteristic  of  butter  made  from 
soured  or  fermented  cream.  Butter  churned 
from  sweet  cream  is  insipid  in  flavor  and  is  not 
desired  by  many;  furthermore,  it  does  not  keep 
as  well  as  that  from  soured  cream.  For  these 
reasons  cream  is  allowed  to  sour  before  being 
churned  into  butter.  This  condition  is  usually 
brought  about  within  twenty-four  hours  or  less 
by  leaving  the  cream  moderately  warm,  usually 
from  60°  to  70°.  The  most  approved  method 
is  to  add  what  is  called  a  starter,  to  cause  the 
desired  kind  of  souring  to  begin.  This  may  be 
likened  to  the  use  of  yeast  in  bread-making. 
When  the  proper  condition  of  sourness  is 
reached  the  cream  is  ready  for  churning.  This 
stage  is  detected  by  taste  and  appearance,  or  in 
factory  work  by  an  accurate  test.  The  condition 
may  be  described  as  a  mild,  sour  taste,  and  a 
somewhat  thickened  or  granular  appearance  of 
the  cream. 

C— BUTTER. 

I.  Coloring  Butter. 

The  natural  color  produced,  when  cows  are 
On  fresh  grass,  is  the  standard  butter  color. 
This  shade  should  be  maintained  throughout 
the  year,  and  this  requires  the  use  of  artificial 
coloring  part  of  the  time.  Coloring  made  for 
this  purpose  is  a  common  article  in  the  markets. 


MILK    AND    ITS   CARE. 


191 


The  best  coloring  used  in  butter  is  made  from 
annottOy  a  vegetable  product,  and  is  entirely 
harmless.  There  can  be  no  objection  to  color- 
ing butter,  as  it  deceives  no  one  and  pleases  the 
eye  of  the  consumer.  Butter  without  artificial 
coloring  is  almost  unsalable  in  most  markets 
during  the  winter  months.  The  coloring-matter 
is  added  to  the  cream  before  churning.  The 
coloring-matter  is  dissolved  in  an  oil  which  unites 
with  the  fat  of  the  butter  and  does  not  color  the 
buttermilk. 

II.  Kinds  of  Churns. 

A  large  number  of  churns  have  been  invented, 
but  none  is  better  suited  for  the  small  dairy  than 
the  common  barrel  churn 
(Fig.  47).  Churns  with 
dashes,  or  other  means  of 
agitating  the  cream  violently, 
are  objectionable,  on  account 
of  loss  in  churning  and  effect 
upon  the  quality  of  butter. 

Within  recent  years  a  new 
type  of  churn,  called  "  com- 
bined      churn      and     worker,"    '""^da^pted  for  farm  use. 

has  been  put  on  the  market. 

These  churns  are  now  used  almost  exclusively 
in  large  butter  factories,  and  in  many  dairies. 
As  the  name  indicates,  this  machine  churns 
the  cream,  and  later  works  the  butter  in  the 
same  apparatus. 


-BARREL    CHURN. 


192  AGRICULTURE. 

III.  Churning. 

Churning  is  the  gathering  together  of  the  fat 
globules  into  a  mass  called  butter.  This  may 
be  accomplished  by  any  kind  of  agitation  violent 
enough  to  cause  the  fat  globules  to  come  together 
with  some  force. 

I.  Effect  of  Temperature. — One  of  the  most 
important  factors  to  be  considered  in  connection 
with  churning  is  the  temperature.  Temperature 
controls,  to  a  large  extent,  the  time  of  churning, 
the  loss  of  butter  in  the  buttermilk,  and  that 
important  quality  of  the  butter  called  the  grain. 
The  higher  the  temperature  of  the  cream  the 
softer  the  butter  fat  becomes,  and  the  more 
readily  it  unites,  shortening  the  time  of  churn- 
ing. The  temperature  should  be  so  regulated 
that  the  time  required  for  churning  will  be  be- 
tween one-half  hour  and  one  hour.  No  definite 
temperature  can  be  given  as  applicable  to  all 
cases,  as  it  must  vary  somewhat  with  the  thick- 
ness of  the  cream,  season  of  the  year,  and  period 
of  lactation.  The  best  rule  is  to  churn  at  as  low 
a  temperature  as  it  is  possible  to  have  the  butter 
form  within  the  desired  time.  Butter  factories,  as 
a  rule,  churn  cream  from  50*^  to  54*^  F.  in  summer 
and  from  54°  to  58°  in  winter.  (Smaller  dairies 
usually  churn  at  somewhat  higher  temperature.) 

The  greatest  improvement  that  could  be  made 
at  a  small  expense  in  the  method  of  butter- 
making  on  the  average  farm  would  be  the  use 


MILK   AND    ITS   CARE.  193 

of  a  thermometer,  and  a  proper  control  of  the 
churning  temperature.  Butter  churned  too 
warm  lacks  firm  texture,  and  is  said  to  be  "weak 
bodied  "  and  softens  easily  in  a  warm  tempera- 
ture. Churning  at  too  low  a  temperature  re- 
sults in  unnecessarily  lengthening  the  time  of 
churning,  with  no  advantage  gained  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  butter. 

2.  Other  Factors  Affecting  Thne  of  CJiurn- 
ing. — The  per  cent,  of  butter  fat  has  an  impor- 
tant bearing  upon  the  time  of  churning.  A 
cream  with  a  low  per  cent,  of  butter  fat  churns 
more  slowly  than  does  a  richer  cream,  and  re- 
quires a  higher  temperature.  Cream  from  cows 
that  have  been  giving  milk  a  long  time  churns 
harder  than  cream  from  fresh  cows,  and  requires 
a  somewhat  higher  churning  temperature,  as  the 
butter  fat  of  the  former  is  harder,  the  globules 
smaller,  and  the  milk  more  viscid  or  sticky,  mak- 
ing it  more  difficult  for  the  fat  globules  to  ad- 
here together. 

Cream  from  cows  producing  large  fat  glo- 
bules churns  a  trifle  easier  than  does  that  from 
those  producing  small  ones,  and  may  be  churned 
at  a  lower  temperature. 

Cream  produced  from  dry  feed  churns  more 
slowly  than  that  produced  from  green  feed,  and 
should  be  churned  at  a  higher  temperature,  on 
account  of  the  hardness  of  the  fat  and  more  vis- 
cid condition  of  the  milk. 


194  AGRICULTURE. 

3.  When  to  Stop  Churfiing. — Churning  should 
be  stopped  when  the  butter  granules  are  about 
the  size  of  large  grains  of  wheat.  Churning 
until  the  butter  is  gathered  into  a  mass,  as  is 
often  done,  makes  the  removal  of  the  butter- 
milk impossible,  resulting  in  poor  keeping  qual- 
ity and  injured  grain  of  the  butter. 

IV.  Washing  Butter. 

When  churning  is  completed  and  the  butter- 
milk removed,  the  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
wash  the  butter.  For  this  purpose  clean,  cold 
water,  at  a  temperature  somewhat  colder  than 
that  at  which  the  cream  was  churned,  is  used. 
About  two-thirds  as  much  water  as  there  was 
cream  is  added  to  the  butter,  and  the  churn  re- 
volved slowly  for  six  or  eight  turns.  It  is  then 
stopped  and  the  cold  water  drawn  off.  The  ob- 
ject of  washing  is  to  remove  the  buttermilk  from 
the  butter. 

V.  Salting. 

Butter  is  salted  as  a  matter  of  taste.  The 
amount  of  salt  used  may  vary  somewhat,  but, 
as  a  rule,  it  is  from  three-quarters  to  seven- 
eighths  of  an  ounce  to  each  pound  of  butter. 
The  salt  used  should  be  of  the  best  quality,  and 
made  especially  for  this  purpose.  The  act  of 
mixing  the  salt  with  the  butter  is  known  as 
working  the  butter. 


MILK    AND    ITS    CARE. 


195 


VI.  Working  Butter. 

The  objects  of  working  are  to  expel  a  portion 
of  the  water,  to  mix  thoroughly  the  salt  with  the 
butter,  and  to  get  the  butter  into  compact,  mar- 
ketable form  (Fig.  48). 

The  combined  churn  and  worker  runs  the 
butter  between  slowly 
revolving  rollers,  and 
is  used  almost  exclu- 
sively in  large  butter 
factories.  The  work- 
ing is  continued  until 
the  salt  is  evenly  dis- 
tributed and  the  grain 
of  the  butter  shows 
the  right  stage  has 
been  reached.  At  this  stage  the  granules  of 
butter  almost  lose  their  identity  and  string  out 
slightly  when  the  butter  is  broken,  instead  of 
breaking  straight  across.  Overworking  butter 
spoils  its  grain,  and  insufficient  working  results 
in  uneven  or  streaked  color  of  the  butter, 
known  as  mottling.  The  latter  is  a  very  common 
and  a  very  objectionable  fault  in  butter. 

VII.  Composition  of  Butter. 

The  average  composition  of  butter  is  about  as 
follows  :  Fat,  85  per  cent.;  casein,  i  per  cent.; 
salt,  2.5  per  cent.;  water,  11.5  per  cent. 

The  composition  varies  considerably,  espe- 
cially the  fat  and  water.    Butter  of  good  quality 


KIG.  48. — FARM    DAIRY    HUTTER- 

WORKER. 

One  of  the  best  for  farm  use. 


196  AGRICULTURE. 

seldom  contains  less  than  80  per  cent,  of  fat  or 
more  than  15  per  cent,  of  water. 

VIII.  Overrun. 

The  term  "overrun"  is  used  to  express  the 
excess  of  butter  made  over  the  amount  of  butter 
fat  contained  in  the  cream  or  milk.  The  Bab- 
cock  test  shows  the  amount  of  pure  butter  fat. 
When  this  is  made  into  butter,  water,  salt,  and 
casein  are  present,  in  addition  to  the  fat.  Under 
the  best  conditions  of  handling,  the  butter  should 
exceed  the  butter  fat  about  one-sixth,  but  may 
vary  greatly.  The  common  method  of  estimat- 
ing the  yield  of  butter  from  the  Babcock  test  is 
to  find  the  total  number  of  pounds  of  butter  fat, 
and  add  one-sixth  of  its  weight.  This  is  the 
plan  used  by  experiment  stations  and  dairymen 
keeping  records  of  the  production  of  individual 
cows. 

IX.  Packing  and  Marketing. 

After  the  butter  is  thoroughly  worked,  it  is 
next  packed  in  form  for  market.  The  style  of 
package  will  vary  with  the  market  for  which  the 
product  is  intended. 

When  large  quantities  are  to  be  shipped  some 
distance,  various  sized  tubs  (holding  from  ten  to 
sixty  pounds)  are  used.  These  tubs  are  made 
of  ash  or  spruce,  and  the  sides  are  lined  before 
use  with  a  piece  of  parchment  paper,  a  circle  of 
the  same  being  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  tub 
and  another  on  the  top.      For  local  sale,  various 


s     rt 


5    a 


O    -3 


198  AGRICULTURE. 

packages  are  used — as,  different  sizes  of  wooden 
pails,  glass  or  earthen  jars,  and  paper  boxes; 
but  the  one  most  favored  is  the  rectangular 
pound  print  wrapped  in  parchment  paper. 
These  are  made  rapidly  by  means  of  molds  de- 
signed for  the  purpose,  and  when  once  adjusted 
print  very  accurate  pounds  (Fig.  49). 

Z>.— REFERENCES. 

"Dairying  at  Home  and  Abroad."     Year-book,  1902. 

"  Utilization  of  By-products  of  the  Dairy."     Year-book,  1897. 

"Care  of  Dairy  Utensils."     Year-book,  1896. 

"Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm."  Farmers'  Bulletin  63,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"  Facts  About  Milk."  Farmers'  Bulletin  42,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

"  Feeding  the  Dairy  Cow."  Bulletin  Missouri  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

"  Milk  and  Its  Product."     Wing.      igoo.     10. 

"Testing  Milk  and  Its  Products."  Farrington  &  Woll.  1900. 
Mendota  Book  Co.,  Madison,  Wis. 

"  Dairy  Bacteriology."     Russell.      1899.      Madison,  Wis. 

"  Butter  Making  on  the  Farm."     Farmers'  Bulletin  57. 

"Milk  as  Food."     Farmers'  Bulletin  74. 


OUTLINE  OF  CHAPTER  IX. 

PROPAGATION    OF    PLANTS. 

^.—PROPAGATION   FROM   SEEDS. 

SEKDS    AND    SEEDLINGS. 

I.  The  Seed-coat. 

Stratificiition. 

rl.  The  Testing  of  Seeds. 

f.    Importance  of  Seed-testing. 

2.  Purity. 

3.  Vitality. 

Factors  influencing  vitality  are  : 
(i)  Time  of  Gathering. 

(2)  Condition  of  Parent  Plant. 

(3)  Age 

(4)  Method  of  Preservation. 

(II.  Germination  of  Seeds. 

A  study  of  the  conditions  for  germinalioi 
r .    1  'empera  ture. 

2.  Moist  It  re. 

3.  Air. 

4.  Geoiropisni. 

5.  Light. 

6.  OtJier  Conditions. 

IV.  Treatment  of  Fine  Seeds. 
V.  Variation  of  Plants. 

1.  Causes  of  Variation. 

(1)  Difference  in  F'ood  Supply 

(2)  Climatic  Conditions. 

(3)  Sexual  Reproduction. 

2.  Fixation  of  Variation. 

(i)  Means. 

{a)   Natural  Selection. 
{b)   Artificial  Selection. 

199 


200  AGRICULTURE. 

(2)  Time  Depknds  Upon: 

(a)  Tendency  of  the  Plant  to  Vary. 
(d)  Rate  of  Development. 

^.—PROPAGATION  FROM  BUDS. 

I.  Cutting. 

1.  Green  Wood  Cuttings. 

(i)  Leaf  Cuttings. 
(2)  Stem  Cuttings. 

2.  Hard-wood  Cuttings. 

(i)  Stem  Cuttings. 
(2)  Root  Cuttings. 

II.  Budding. 

1.  Spring  Budding. 

2.  Late  Sumtner  or  Early  Fall  Budding. 

III.  Grafting. 

General  principles  of. 
Subdivisions  of. 

1.  With  Reference  to  Position  of  tJic  Scion  Upon  tht 

Stock. 
(i)  Root-grafting. 

(a)  Whole-root  Grafting. 

(^)   Piece-root  Grafting. 
(»)  Stem-grafting. 

(a)  Top-grafting. 

{b)  Crown-grafting. 

2.  With  Reference  to  Insertion  of  Scion  Into  the  Stock. 

(i)  Tongue  or  Whip  Graft. 
(2)  Cleft  Graft. 

IV.  Layering. 

I.   Simple  Layering, 
2.-  Mound  Layering. 

3.  Pot  Layering. 

C— REP^ERENCES. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

The  basic  principle  of  all  horticultural  opera- 
tions is  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  plant  and 
its  environ7nent.  This  necessitates  a  careful 
study  of  the  nature  and  conditions  of  the  seed- 
ling throughout  its  development  from  the  em- 
bryo to  the  adult  plant. 

^.—PROPAGATION  FROM  SEEDS. 

SKEDS    AND    SEEDLINGS. 

I.  The  Seed-coat. 

Examine  the  outer  covering  of  a  number  of  dif- 
erent  seeds — as,  the  corn,  bean,  squash,  peach, 
canna,  and  locust — noting  carefully  the  difference 
in  their  textures.  If  these  seeds  be  planted  at 
the  same  time  and  under  the  same  conditions, 
they  will  show  equally  as  great  variations  in  the 
time  which  they  require  for  germination. 

In  nature,  the  hard,  tough  seeds  of  many  or- 
chard and  forest  trees — as,  apple,  peach,  and 
hickory — are  buried  beneath  the  litter  of  the 
orchard  or  forest,  where  they  are  subjected  to 
winter  snows  and  changes  of  temperature  until 
their  outer  coverings  are  softened  or  cracked,  so 
that  the  embryonic  plant  may  develop,  while 
the  seeds  of  such  species  as  the  catalpa  (Fig. 
50),  honey-locust,  and  Kentucky  coffee-bean  re- 


202  AGRICULTURE. 

main  on  the  trees  all  winter.  This  indicates 
that  a  cold,  moist  ground  would  be  disastrous  to 
them  ;  consequently,  these  seeds  are  shed  in  the 
warm  days  of  spring,  the  higher  temperature 
unsealing  the  waxy  covering  of  the  honey-locust, 
and  the  spring  winds  widely  disseminating  the 
delicately  winged  seeds  of  the  catalpa.  By  fol- 
lowing these  hints  of  nature,  man  may  perform 
and  regulate  these  processes  almost  at  will. 

Stratification  is  a  very  practical  and  simple 
method  of  preparing  many  seeds  having  a  hard 
or  tough  outer  covering  for  germination.  By 
this  means  the  seeds  are  protected  from  mice, 
chipmunks,  squirrels,  etc.,  and  at  the  same  time 
given  the  conditions  furnished  by  nature. 

Directions  for  stratifying  seeds:  (<?)  In  October  or 
November  take  the  seeds  of  cherry,  apple,  peach,  plum, 
hickory,  and  walnut,  which  have  been  collected  during 
the  summer  and  autumn. 

{J})  Place,  in  a  shallow  box,  a  layer  of  sand,  leaf- 
mould,  or  even  garden  soil,  then  a  layer  of  tlie  seeds;  in 
this  way  alternate  a  layer  of  sand  with  one  of  seeds  until 
the  box  is  full. 

(r)  Sink  the  box  in  the  ground  in  some  shady  place, 
and  leave  uncovered,  exposed  to  the  winter  snows,  rains, 
and  frosts  until  the  following  spring. 

(rf')  When  the  weather  permits,  plant  thickly  in  rows 
in  well-prepared  soil.      (See  "  Tillage.") 

II.  The  Testing  of  Seeds. 

I.  The  Jniportancc  of  Sccd-testiiig  prepara- 
tory to  planting,  and  the  simple  methods  by 
which  it  may  be  done,  are  not  generally  realized. 


,  ^,    \l  *•„ 


FIG.     50.  —  CATAI.rA     I  KEE. 
Showing  seed  pods  intact  in  February. 


204  AGRICULTURE. 

Often  many  annoyances  and  disappointments 
would  be  averted,  and  much  time  and  labor 
saved,  if  proper  attention  were  given  to  the 
quality  of  the  seeds  sown.  Bad  seeds  not  only 
result  in  partial  or  total  failure  of  the  crop,  but 
may  be  the  means  of  introducing  noxious  weeds 
— as,  the  plantains.  A  field  is  frequently  sown 
in  bracted  plantain  when  it  was  meant  to  be 
sown  in  red  clover.  The  principal  points  to  be 
considered  in  determining  the  quality  of  seeds 
are  purity  and  vitality. 

2.  Purity.  —  Various  impurities  may  exist, 
either  incidentally,  or  purposely,  in  commercial 
seeds — such  as  inert  matter,  or  seeds  of  other 
useful  or  injurious  plants — any  of  which  would 
make  the  seeds  more  expensive  if  not  altogether 
objectionable.  Purity  of  seeds  may  be  tested 
by  carefully  examining  with  the  eye — or  lens,  if 
necessary — a  fair  sample  of  the  seeds  to  be 
planted. 

3.  Vitality  of  Seeds. — In  the  testing  of  seeds 
it  is  not  safe  to  rely  upon  general  appearances 
— such  as  form,  color,  and  odor — but  the  seeds 
must  be  actually  tested  to  be  certain  of  their 
vitality. 

Experiment  15. — {a)  From  each  kind  of  seeds  de- 
sired, select  at  random  a  certain  number,  according  to 
the  quantity  to  be  planted. 

{h)  If  the  seeds  are  large,  it  may  be  advantageous  to 
soak  them  a  few  hours. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  205 

(c)  Saturate  several  thicknesses  of  heavy  blotting- 
paper,  and  fit  them  into  shallow  flats  or  plates  ;  now 
place  the  seeds  directly  upon  this  moist  paper.  (If  very 
fine  seeds,  put  them  upon  squares  of  cheese-cloth  spread 
upon  the  paper.)  Cover  the  flats  with  pieces  of  window- 
glass,  leaving  crevices  to  admit  air.  Each  day  note 
carefully,  and  remove  the  number  of  seeds  which  sprout. 

[d)  What  per  cent,  of  seeds  was  vital  ?  What  does 
the  ^if'ie  required  for  sprouting  indicate  regarding  their 
vitality  ?  Could  the  same  results  be  expected  from  out- 
door conditions?  Would  a  farmer  be  justified  in  plant- 
ing the  seeds  from  which  these  samples  were  taken  ? 
Does  not  this  test  warrant  the  revision  of  the  old  adage, 
"  Taste  and  try  before  you  buy,"  to  "  Test  and  try  be- 
fore you  buy,"  in  this  case  ? 

Factors  influencing  the  vitality  of  seeds  are : 
(i)  The  time  of  gathering;  (2)  the  condition 
of  the  parent  plant  ;  (3)  the  age  of  the  seeds, 
and  (4)  the  method  of  their  preservation. 

Experiment  16. — (a)  Take  seeds  of  several  garden 
or  farm  crops — as,  wheat,  corn,  beans,  peas,  radishes,  let- 
tuce, and  apples — which  have  been  gathered  at  intervals 
during  the  growing  season,  so  that  two  stages  (imma- 
turity, maturity)  in  the  development  of  the  seeds  may 
be  represented. 

(^)  Note  the  date  of  gathering,  the  appearance  of  the 
seeds,  and  the  condition  of  the  parent  plant  at  each  of 
these  stages. 

{c)  Plant  those  of  each  stage  in  a  separate  row  and 
label  the  rows. 

(d)  Observe,  compare,  and  tabulate  the  time  of  appear- 
ance of  each  seedling. 

(<?)  From  your  results  in  this  experiment,  what  effect 
do  you  conclude  the  ^iwe  of  gathering  has  upon  the  vital- 


206  AGRICULTURE. 

ity  of  seeds  ?     Why  ?     What   effect  has  the  condition  oj 
the  parent  plant  upon  the  vitality  of  tlie  seeds? 

(3)  Age  of  Seeds. — For  the  success  of  the 
following  experiment  time  and  patience  are  the 
chief  requisites.  The  work  may  be  begun  in 
one  class,  and  continued  by  each  successive 
class  as  long  as  any  of  the  seeds  show  vitality, 
or  some  studt  nt  may  elect  this  work  through- 
out his  school  course. 

Experiment  17. —  {a)  To  make  a  careful  and  rather 
exhaustive  study  of  the  effect  of  age  upcMi  the  vitality  of 
seeds,  two  or  three  hundred  of  each  kind  of  farm  and 
garden  seeds  of  the  vicinity  should  be  collected,  each 
kind  placed  in  a  large-mouthed  bottle,  and  labeled  as 
to  kind,  date,  and  place  of  collection,  and  placed  in  a 
case  provided  for  that  purpose,  together  with  a  blank- 
book  for  a  permanent  record. 

'(h)  Test  each  kind  of  seed  according  to  HxperimeuL 
15,  discarding  any  which  do  not  show  strong  vitalitj^, 
replacing  them  with  new  material  as  soon  as  possible, 
and  relabeling. 

{c)  Repeat  this  test  each  successive  year  as  long  as 
any  seeds  show  vitality. 

{(i)  When  any  sample  of  seeds  is  no  longer  vital,  dis- 
card the  seeds  and  replace  them  with  freshly  tested 
ones,  labeling  as  at  first  for  the  use  of  subsequent 
classes. 

(<')  Carefully  note  each  year  the  number  of  seeds  of 
each  kind  which  geiminate,  and  the  time  in  hours  re- 
quired for  their  germination. 

(/)  What  injuries  may  arise  from  retarded  germina- 
tion ?  Place  your  data  in  the  permanent  record,  nnd 
compare  with  the  data  of  previous  years.     This  record 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  207 

should   eventually   show   the  age  at  which  the   various 
kinds  of  seeds  may  be  profitably  planted. 

(4)  The  Method  of  Preservation  of  seeds 
Is  of  importance.  Seeds  should  be  freed  from 
any  pulpy  material,  carefu'ly  dried  under  mod- 
erate temperature,  labeled  with  name  and  date, 
and  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place  which  is  abso- 
lutely mouse-proof, 

III.  Germination  of  Seeds. 

A  study  of  the  conditions  necessary  for  the 
germination  of  seeds. 

1.  Tonperature. 

Experiment  18. — {a)  Plant  separate  grcmps  of  similar, 
uniform-sized  seeds  of  any  garden  or  farm  crop  in  jars 
or  pots  containing  some  moist  pourous  material — as, 
sawdust,  sand,  or  moss. 

(/;)  Place  these  jars  in  different  parts  of  the  l)uilding 
which  ha^-e  decidedly  different  temperatures— as,  a  north 
window,  a  south  window,  near  a  register,  and  in  a 
basement. 

{c)  Record  the  temperature  at  each  of  these  places  each 
morning,  noon,  and  night. 

(^/)  Note  the  time  of  the  appearance  of  each  group  of 
seedlings,  and  determine  the  time  required  for  germina- 
tion. 

{e)   Record  the  data  thus  obtained  in  tabular  form. 

(/)   Compare.      What  does  the  experiment  teach  ? 

2.  Moisture — Soaking  seeds:  effect  of  upon  germi- 
nation. 

Experiment  19. — {a)  Select  a  given  number  of  seeds 
of  various  kinds — as,  corn,  wheat,  beans,  squash,  and 
tomato. 

{b)   Divide  each  kind  into  two  lots.     Plant  one  of  these 


208  AGRICULTURE. 

lots  (each  kind  at  the  proper  depth)  in  a  box  of  sand; 
the  other  lot  place  in  a  shallow  dish  of  water,  and  soak 
for  ten  or  twelve  hours;  then  plant  these  seeds  in  the 
sand  at  the  same  depth  and  under  the  same  conditions 
as  the  first  lot. 

(c)  Note  and  tabulate  the  time  of  the  appearance  of 
the  seedlings  of  the  soaked  and  unsoaked  seeds  of  each 
kind. 

(</)  Was  the  time  of  germination  of  each  kind  short- 
ened by  the  soaking  ?  Were  any  seeds  damaged  by 
soaking? 

Experiment  20. — (a)  Select  seeds,  as  in  the  above  ex- 
periment.    Soak  one-half  of  each  kind,  as  before. 

(6)  Now  separate  the  soaked  and  the  unsoaked  seeds 
each  into  three  lots, 

(c)  Plant  one  lot  of  each  (the  soaked  and  unsoaked) 
in  dry  soil,  another  in  moist  soil,  and  the  third  in  wei 
soil,  other  conditions  being  the  same  for  each. 

(^)  Tabulate,  and  compare  results. 

(e)  What  does  this  experiment  teach  concerning  the 
condition  of  the  soil  with  regard  to  moisture  at  the  time 
of  planting  seeds? 

3    ^I'r- 

Experiment  21. — (a)  Fill  a  pot  with  woisf  sand  or 
mellow  garden  soil,  and  another  pot  with  clay  or  loam 
that  has  been  wef  and  well  stirred  until  about  the  con- 
sistency of  paste.  Now  plant  in  each  pot  several 
beans,  peas,  or  grains  of  corn,  pressing  them  in  and 
carefully  smootliing  ai'er  tlie  top. 

(V)  Place  both  pots  under  the  same  external  con- 
ditions. If  the  puddle  clay  or  loam  cracks,  moisten  it, 
and  again  press  the  surface  smooth. 

{c)  Observe  and  note  results.  What  fills  the  inter- 
stices in  the  jar  of  moist  sand  or  soil  ?  What  in  the 
puddled  clay  ?      Do   the  seeds   in  each  pot    germinate 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  209 

equally  well?  Why?  What  condition  is  present  in  one 
pot  that  is  not  in  the  other  ? 

4.   Geotropism. 

Experiment  22. — {a)  Plant  in  moist  sand  or  sawdust 
a  number  of  squash  seeds  and  grains  of  corn  in  various 
positions — some  with  either  side  down,  some  with  either 
edge  down,  and  some  with  either  end  down. 

{p)   Label  each  group  as  to  position  in  planting. 

(r)  After  two  or  three  days,  examine  to  see  if  any  of 
the  seeds  have  sprouted. 

{d)  If  so,  note  carefully  the  direction  of  radicle  and 
of  plumule. I     Draw. 

(<?)   Label  according  to  position,  and  name  all  parts. 

(/)  Now  plant  again,  with  the  position  of  the  seed 
reversed.    Repeat  daily  {d),  (^),  and  (/)  for  several  days. 

i^g)  Does  the  position  of  the  seed  when  planted  have 
any  effect  upon  the  development  of  the  embryo  ?  Ex- 
plain. How  do  the  results  of  your  daily  observations 
compare  with  reference  to  the  direction  of  growth  of 
radicle  and  plumule?* 

Experiment  23. — Stevens'  "  Introduction  to  Botany  " 
gives  the  following  experiment  in  connection  with  geot- 
ropism: "  Remove  the  glass  front  and  the  hands  from  a 
cheap  alarm-clock.  Provide  a  soft  pine  block  about  an 
inch  square,  whittle  one  end  to  a  taper,  and  drill  a  small 
hole  into  it,  so  that  it  will  slip  through  the  opening  of 
the  dial  face  and  tightly  over  the  hour-hand  spindle. 
Fasten  a  Petri  dish  to  the  outer  face  of  the  pine  block 
by  a  melted  mixture  of  one-third  beeswax  and  two- 
thirds  rosin,  taking  care  to  center  the  dish  with  the 
hour-hand  spindle.  Pack  moist  pine  sawdust  into  the 
dish  level  with  the  surface,  and  press  soaked  grains  of 
corn  into  the  sawdust,  not  very  tightly,  broad  face  down, 
but  do  not  cover  them  with  sawdust.     Put  on  the  cover 


For  parts  of  seed  and  seedling,  see  any  good  Botany. 


210  AGRICULTURE. 

of  the  Petri  dish  and  hold  it  h»  position  by  means  of 
clips  made  of  spring  brass  wire  (Figs.  51,  52).  (See 
Stevens'  "  Botany,"  p.  25.)  Wind  the  clock,  and  set  it  in 
its  normal  position — that  is,  with  the  hour-hand  spindle 


I->om  Stevens'  •'lijtroilu>li..n  to  liotany."  Copyright,  IMO'J,  by  IJ.  lli-alh  ,v  v  i.. 

FIGS.    51   AND    52. — SEEDLINGS   OF   INDIAN    CORN 

Grown    in    sawdust    in  a  Petri   dish  Grown    in    sawdust  in    a   Petri  dish 

while    revolving    by   clockwork  one  which  was  kept  stationary  in  a  ver- 

revolution   per   hour.      The    axis    of  tical   position.     Gravity  is  acting  as  a 

revolution  is  horizontal,  the  plane  of  directive  agent,  and  the  roots  find  atid 

the  dish  vertical.    Gravity  as  a  direct-  take  the  downward   and   the   shoots 

ive  agent  is  eliminated,  and  roots  and  the  upward  direction,  irrespective  of 

.shoots  grow  out  in  the  diredlion  in  the    directions    toward     which    they 

which  they  happen  to  be  pointed.  were  originally  pointing. 

horizontal.  Prepare  seeds  in  another  dish  in  exactly 
the  same  manner,  but  fasten  it  so  that  it  will  stand  ver- 
tically on  its  edge. 

In  the  first  experiment  the  directive  effect  of  gravity 
would  be  neutralized  by  the  revolution  of  the  dish, 
while  in  the  second  gravity  may  exercise  its  usual  influ- 
ence on  the  direction  taken  by  root  and  shoot.  Compare 
results  as  to  direction  of  radicle  and  plumule.* 


*  Since  the  seeds  are  not  covered  by  the  sawdust,  their  progress 
in  germination  may  be  observed  at  any  time  without  interrupting 
the  experiment.  The  position  occupied  by  the  parts  of  the  seed- 
lings can  easily  be  recorded  for  any  ,»eriod  by  tracing  with  ink 
on  the  cover  immediately  over  them. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  211 

5.  Light. 

Experiment  24. — {a)  Soak  a  number  of  different  kinds 
of  seeds  for  a  few  liours  and  divide  each  kind  into  lots. 

ij))  Place  each  lot  on  a  square  of  moist  flannel  laid 
upon  moist  sand,  and  cover  with  a  glass  tumbler. 

{c)  Now  cover  one  of  these  tumblers  with  a  heavy 
paper  cone,  the  inside  of  which  has  been  blackened  by 
simply  holding  it  over  a  lighted  lamp. 

[d')  Watch  the  seeds  in  the  uncovered  tumbler.  As 
soon  as  any  growth  is  shown,  remove  the  paper  cone 
from  the  other  tumbler,  and  compare  the  growth  made 
in  the  dark  with  that  made  in  the  light  for  each  kind  of 
seeds. 

(e)  Is  light  a  necessary  condition  for  germination  ? 

6.  Other  Conditions. 

Experiment  25. — {a)  Soak  for  a  few  hours  a  number 
of  peas  and  Lima  beans.  Plant  a  definite  number  of 
each  kind  of  these  soaked  seeds  at  the  same  time  in 
moist  sand  at  various  depths,  from  one-half  inch  to  four 
inches,  labeling  as  to  depth. 

{b)  Note  carefully  the  appearance  of  each  kind  of 
seedlings  planted  at  the  various  depths. 

(r)  Within  a  few  days  after  tlie  appearance  of  the  first 
seedlings,  observe  (i)  the  growth  made  by  the  peas 
planted  at  the  various  depths,  and  compare;  (2)  that 
made  by  the  beans  at  the  various  depths;  (3)  the  relative 
growth  made  by  the  peas  and  beans. 

(^)  Does  the  depth  of  planting  liave  any  efifect  upon 
the  time  of  germination  ?  Upon  the  certainty  of  germina- 
tion ?  By  what  external  conditions  is  tlie  germination 
influenced  ?  What  relation  does  the  development  of  the 
seedlings  themselves  bear  to  the  depth  of  planting? 

IV.  Treatment  of  Fine  Seeds. 

Where  practicable,  very  small  seeds  should 
be  sown  Indoors  and  given  special  care. 


212  AGRICULTURE. 

Directions:  For  this  purpose,  use  shallow  boxes — 
about  four  inches  in  depth — which  have  been  soaked 
in  lime-water,  or  water  containing  a  little  formaldehyde, 
or  whitewashed. 

(a)  Fill  these  with  a  soil  prepared  by  carefully  mixing 
equal  parts  of  sand,  leaf-mould,  and  garden  loam.  Well- 
rotted  manure  may  be  substituted  for  leaf-mould,  and 
rotted  sod,  cut  up  fine  and  sifted,  for  leaf-mould  and  loam, 
It  is  well  to  add  to  this  a  very  small  quantity  of  wood 
ashes.  Sow  the  seeds  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  press 
them  in. 

(^)  Apply  moisture  by  very  lightly  sprinkling  willi  a 
small  sprinkler  or  by  hand.  Cover  with  window-glass, 
providing  for  the  admission  of  air. 

(c)  As  soon  as  true  leaves  are  well  formed,  they  may 
be  transplanted  into  inch  pots,  and  repotted  into  larger- 
sized  pots  as  often  as  is  necessary.  Before  planting  in 
the  open  ground  the  plants  should  be  hardened  in  a 
cold  frame  (see  under  "  Cuttings  "). 

V.  Variation  of  Plants. 

Though  the  offspring  of  plants  is  like  the 
parent  in  kind,  yet  individual  members  of  the 
species  are  not  exactly  alike.  Their  differ- 
ences are  often  scarcely  perceptible;  but  if 
various  members  of  the  same  species  in  a  given 
locality  be  compared,  shades  of  differences  may 
be  seen.  For  example,  the  little  spring  beauty 
(  Clatonia  virginica )  shows  much  variation  in 
the  number  and  size  of  its  petals.  Their  color 
also  ranges  from  white  to  deep  pink.  The  dog's- 
tooth  violet  (^Erythronhini  albiduni)  shows  like 
morphological  differences. 

Throughout  nature  these  variations  exist,  the 
offspring  differing  from  its  progenitor.     Among 


214  AGRICULTURE. 

the  higher  plants  those  species  covering  a  wide 
range  show  greater  variation  in  their  individual 
!iiembers  than  species  more  restricted  in  their 
distribution — conditions  which  might  be  ex- 
pected: the  more  diverse  the' environment,  the 
more  variable  the  individual.  Thus,  the  luxu- 
riantly growing  plant  at  the  base  of  a  moun- 
tain varies  greatly  from  its  dwarfed  brother  at 
the  summit  (Figs.  53,  54).  On  the  other  hand, 
the  more  variable  the  plant  the  more  easily  it 
can  adapt  itself  to  varying  conditions;  hence, 
the  more  widely  it  is  distributed. 

I.  Causes  of  Variation. — Variation  is  not  the 
result  of  chance,  yet  the  detailed  differences  in 
varieties  of  the  same  species  can  only  be  sug- 
gested. 

In  every  individual  two  factors  are  manifest: 
the  nature  of  the  organism,  and  the  nature  of 
the  external  conditions.  Nevertheless,  the  same 
conditions  do  not  always  produce  the  same  re- 
sults, for  similar  varieties  may  be  "produced* 
from  the  same  species  under  external  conditions 
of  life  as  different  as  can  well  be  conceived,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  dissimilar  varieties  may  be 
produced  under  apparently  the  same  condi- 
tions." Variation,  then,  may  be  due,  for  the 
most  part,  to  the  innate  tendency  of  the  organ- 
ism to  vary,  the  causes  of  which  are  not  fully 
understood.      However,  some  of   the  causes  of 

*  Darwin's  Origin  of  Species,  p.  127. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  215 

variation  among  plants  seem  to  be  :  (i)  differ- 
ence in  food  supply  ;  (2J  climatic  conditions ; 
(3)  sexual  reproduction. 

None  of  these  causes  would  be  of  any  avail 
were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  selection  preserves 
and  accumulates  all  variations  which  are  benefi- 
cial, and  discards  those  which  are  detrimental  to 
the  organism. 

( 1 )  Difference  in  Food  Supply. — Every  one 
has  noticed  in  different  fields  of  grain,  or  even 
in  the  same  field,  that  in  some  portion  the  plants 
were  sickly  and  stunted,  while  in  others  they 
were  strong  and  well  developed.  One  of  the 
many  conditions  which  may  cause  this  variation 
(in  development)  is  a  difference  in  the  supply 
of  proper  food. 

This  lack  of  the  necessary  constituents  for  the 
growth  of  this  particular  plant  may  be  due  to 
the  exhaustion  of  these  elements  by  former 
crops,  or  to  the  poorness  or  thinness  of  the  soil. 
(See  Chapter  VII.) 

(2)  Climatic  Conditions. — Variation  in  cli- 
mate tends  to  modify  the  structure  and  habits 
of  plants,  their  fruitfulness,  and  the  color  and 
flavor  of  their  fruit.  On  approaching  colder 
climates  plants  become  smaller  and  more  thickly 
set  with  leaves,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  same 
species  growing  at  the  base  and  at  the  summit 
of  a  mountain  (Figs.  53,  54),  as  the  spruce  and 
fir  of  the  Rockies. 


216  AGRICULTURE. 

(3)  Sexual  Reproduction  is  probably  the 
most  important  of  the  causes  of  variation  in 
plants.  This  is  exemplified  by  those  lower  forms 
which  usually  reproduce  asexually,  since  they 
show  very  little  variation  in  many  generations. 
On  the  contrary,  among  higher  plants,  where 
reproduction  is  ordinarily  sexual,  the  offspring 
may  vary  greatly  in  one  generation.  (Thus,  a 
field  planted  in  white  or  yellow  corn  may  pro- 
duce many  variously  colored  ears.)  Hundreds 
of  examples  of  both  wild  and  cultivated  plants 
may  be  given.  * 

This  variation  is  due,  in  a  great  measure,  to 
the  fact  that  each  organism  is  the  product  of 
two  separate  elements  the  male  and  the  female. 
And  each  of  these  was  itself  a  product  of  two 
separate  elements.  In  this  way  the  whole  an- 
cestral line  was  developed.  These  characteristic 
differences  are  the  more  marked  when  the  male 
and  the  female  elements  are  derived  from  differ- 
ent individuals ;  for  in  the  offspring  is  made 
possible  any  of  the  characteristics,  not  only  of 
the  immediate  parents,  but  of  the  entire  ances- 
try of  each.  Thus,  cross-fertilization  becomes  a 
potent  factor  in  producing  variation. 

2.  Fixatio7i  of  Variation. — When  variations 
are  beneficial  to  the  plant  in  its  present  environ- 


* ' '  No  case  is  on  record  of  a  variable  organism  ceasing  to  var v 
under  cultivation.  Our  o!dest  cultivated  plants,  such  as  wheat, 
still  yield  new  varieties." — Origin  of  Species,  Darwin,  p.  6. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  217 

ment,  Natural  Selection  preserves  and  accumu- 
lates them  ;  when  they  are  fiot  beneficial,  Natural 
Selection  discards  them  ;  that  is,  the  plant  pos- 
sessing these  beneficial  variations  has  a  better 
chance  to  survive  and  perpetuate  the  species, 
while  the  plant  whose  variations  are  less  bene- 
ficial will  probably  perish ;  hence,  that  variation 
is  not  perpet7iated. 

Everywhere  in  nature  the  competent  are  pre- 
served and  the  incompetent  are  discarded.  In 
other  words,  the  power  of  an  organism  to  vary 
is  the  measure  of  its  adaptability  to  environ- 
ment. It  is  by  the  preservation,  transmission, 
and  accumulation  of  these  variations  that  new 
varieties  are  formed  among  uncultivated  plants. 
Man  takes  advantage  of  this  fact,  and  by  artifi- 
cial selection  preserves  those  characteristics  of 
the  plant  which  are  beneficial  to  him,  thus  orig- 
inating new  varieties  among  cultivated  plants. 

It  takes  many  generations  for  these  varieties 
to  become  fixed  types.  The  time  required  for 
the  fixation  of  types,  however,  depends  upon 
several  conditions,  one  of  which  is  (i)  the  ten- 
dency of  the  plant  to  vary.  The  more  variable 
the  plant,  the  more  difficult  will  be  the  fixation 
of  the  type  ;  for,  although  it  will  be  easier  to 
find  individual  plants  having  the  desired  char- 
acteristics, on  account  of  this  variability  there 
will  be  less  assurance  that  these  characteristics 
will  be  generally  reproduced  in  the  subsequent 


218 


AGRICULTURE. 


generations.       Examples    of    this    tendency   to 
vary  are  seen  in  the  grape  and  the  potato. 

Another  condition  is  (2)  the  /^V;/^  required  for 
the  growth  of  a  plant  from  the  seed  to  the  ma- 
turity of  its  seed.     Many  species  require  but  a 


FIG.    55.  —  ROOTKD    TIPS    OK   A    SEEDLING    RASI'BEKKY    CANE. 

They  are  of  one  season's  growth,  showing  new  plants  formed  and  their  root- 
systems.     (From  Normal  Garden.) 


single  season ;  most  trees  require  a  number  of 
years  to  produce  one  generation.  Tour  years 
from  seed  to  seed  would  be  a  short  period  for 
apple,  pear,  and  cherry,  and  some  varieties  re- 
quire a  much  longer  time. 

Hence,  it  would  be   impracticable,  if  not  im- 
possible, in  the  lifetime  of  one  man,  to  render 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


319 


the  desired  characteristics  of  these  plants  per- 
manent— that  is,  by  the  selection  and  reproduc- 
tion of  the  seedling.  So  in  these  cases  the  fac- 
tor of  sexual  reproduction  must  be  eliminated, 
and  thus  the  tendency  of  the  plant  to  vary  less- 


FIG.    56. — LEAK    CUTTING — WHOLE    LEAF. 

ened,  if  one  would  perpetuate  the  variety.  This 
is  done  by  lh&  propagation  of  plants  from  bnds, 
or  asexual  reprodtiction. 

^.—PROPAGATION   FROM  BUDS. 

Here,  again,  nature  gives  us  examples  among 
the  uncultivated  plants.  The  wild  strawberry 
multiplies  asexually  by  throwing  out  runners 
which  form  roots  and  become  new  plants.  The 
raspberry  bends  its  flexible  branches  until  their 
tips  touch  the  moist  earth  ;  soon  they  are  cov- 
ered by  leaf-mould  or  soil,  and  new  plants  are 
formed  by  sending  out  roots  from  these  buried 
tips. 


220 


AGRICULTURE. 


Many  other  examples  of  asexual  reproduction 
may  be  found — as,  rootstocks,  tubers,  bulbs,  etc. 

Bud  propagation  may  be  carried  on  by  four  dif- 
ferent processes  :  cutting,  budding,  grafting,  and 
layering,  according  to  (i)  the  number  of  buds 
used,  (2)  the  condition  of  the  material,  and  (3) 
the  season  of  the  year  in  which  the  work  is  done, 
as  is  shown  by  the  following  scheme  : 


CUTTING. 

BUDDING. 

GRAFTING.                  LAYERING. 

Number 

of 

Buds. 

One 

to 

several. 

i                Two                         One 
One.                         or                             to 

more.                    several. 

Time 

of 
year. 

Throughout 

the  year, 

except  in  hot 

weati.er. 

Early 
and  late 
summer. 

I,ast  month 

of  winter,  or 

second  month  of 

spring. 

Spring 

and 
summer. 

Condition 

of 
material. 

Either  dormant 

or 

growing. 

Growing. 

Scion,  dormant. 

\  Dormant 
Stock  -        or 

/  Growing. 

Growing. 

I.  Cutting. 

This  process  consists  in  taking  a  leaf,  a  por- 
tion of  a  stem,  or  of  a  root,  and  placing  it  in  such 
conditions  that  adventitious  J  roots  are  formed, 
and  thus  it  becomes  a  new  plant. 

I.  Green  Wood  Cuttings  are  made  from  the 
green  parts  of  a  growing  plant.  To  secure  the 
best  results,  the  cuttings  should  be  taken  from  a 
well-matured  branch  of  a  vigorous,  healthy  plant. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


221 


KIG.  57. — LEAF  CUTTING — 
PART  OF  LEAF. 


FIG.    58. — LEAF    CUTTING   OF 
Saiisevieria  zeylanica. 


(i)  Leaf  Cuttings  (Fig.  56). — There  are 
few  plants  which  can  be  grown  from  leaves ; 
among  these  are  the  Sansevieria  zeylanica  and 
begonia.  Fleshy  leaves  most  readily  respond 
to  this  manner  of  propagation.  The  leaves  may 
be  placed  upon  moist  sand  and  pegged  down  at 
the  main  veins,  or  the  base  of  the  leaf  buried  in 
the  sand.  Roots  are  thrown  out  at  the  ctU  ends 
of  the  veins,  and  new  plants  are  formed  at 
these  points  (Figs.  56,  57,  58). 

(2)  Stem  Cuttings. — Directions  for  propagating  by 
means  of  stem  cuttings  :  (a)  Cut  thrifty  shoots  from 
different  species  of  plants-^as,  geranium,  coleus,  agera- 
tum,  heliotrope,  verbena,  tomato,  nasturtium,  etc. 


222 


AGRICULTURE. 


{b)  Divide  each  of  tliese  shoots  into  cuttings',  having 
at  least  two  nodes  each.  In  doing  this  begm  with  the 
top  of  the  shoot,  taking  off  a  portion  having  two  or  more 
nodes,  cutting  through  the  stem  immediately  below  the 
lower  node.     Reduce  the  leaf  surface  one-half  (to  check 


FIG.    59. — TIP    CUTTING    OF   A 
CIIRYSANTHKMUM. 


FIG.    60. — CUTTING    OF 
HKLIOTROPE. 


evaporation)  by  removing  the  entire  leaves  from  the 
lower  portion,  and,  if  need  be,  clipping  some  of  the  re- 
maining leaves  (Figs.  59,  60).  One  or  more  cuttings 
may  be  made  from  the  remainder  of  the  shoot.  These 
are  prepared  like  the  tip  cutting,  with  the  exception  thaf 
about  one-half  inch  of  stem  should  be  allowed  to  project 
above  the  upper  node. 

{c)  As  soon  as  each  cutting  is  finished,  it  should  be 
thrown  into  cold  water. 

{a)   Fill  the  propagating-table*  to  the  depth  of  foui- 

*  In  absence  of  propagating-table,  use  a  shallow  box  four  or 
five  inches  deep  (Fig.  65). 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


n/tiO 


or   five    inches    with    clean,    coarse    sand.     (Other  con- 
ditions for  starting  cuttings  should  be  the  same  as  for 
seed  germination.)     If  the  cuttings  are  made  in  sum 
mer,   tlie    propagating-table  will    not  require    artificial 
heat;  otherwise  bottom  heat  must  be  supplied.    Ingreen- 


FIG.  6l. — CUTTING    OF    OLEANDER 
ROOTING   IN    WATER 


a — Young  shoots,     r — Roots. 

FIG.    62. STEM    CUTTING    OF 

UMBRELLA    PLANT    ROOT- 
ING   IN    WATER. 


houses,  or  buildings  where  the  heat  is  sufficiently  well 
regulated,  this  may  be  supplied  by" steam-pipes.  Where 
this  is  not  practicable,  an  excellent  substitute  may  be 
furnished  by  the  use  of  fermenting  stable  compost.  The 
fresh  compost  should  be  mixed  with  a  small  proportion 
of  straw  and  leaves,  moistened  and  packed  in  an  ample 
box,  to  the  depth  of  about  eighteen  inches.  Now  spread 
upon  this  mixture  about  five  inches  of  sand.  (The  box 
should  be  protected  from  direct  sunlight  and  drafts.) 


.^.  -                                                    ■'^ 

^^sm 

PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  325 

((?)  Place  a  thermometer  in  the  sand,  and  record  the 
temperature  at  various  intervals  for  several  days.  It 
will  be  evident  that  as  the  compost  becomes  heated  the 
temperature  will  be  too  high  for  the  cuttings,  and  they 
should  not  be  put  in  until  the  temperature  has  fallen  to 
about  80*'. 

(/)  The  cuttings  should  be  well  firmed  in  the  sand  to 
about  one-half  of  their  length,  and  placed  about  an  inch 
apart  in  rows.  After  the  cuttings  are  placed,  brush  the 
hand  across  their  tops,  to  see  if  they  are  sufficiently  well 
firmed.  If  so,  none  of  them  will  be  displaced.  Label 
each  species  of  cuttings  with  name  and  date. 

(g)  The  sand  must  be  kept  uniformly  moist,  not  wet. 
The  cuttings  may  be  carefully  lifted  out  and  examined 
from  time  to  time,  to  see  if  any  have  rooted.  The  time 
required  for  each  species  to  root  should  be  recorded. 

{A)  As  soon  as  the  roots  are  about  an  inch  long,  the 
cuttings  should  be  potted  off  into  thumb-pots  filled  with 
soil  prepared,  as  directed  for  treatment  of  fine  seeds 
(page  212).  These  little  pots  should  be  sunk  to  one-third 
of  their  depth  in  flats  of  moist  sand.  As  soon  as  the 
plant  has  grown  until  the  pot  is  filled  with  roots,  it  should 
be  transferred  to  a  size  larger  pot. 

(/)  To  ascertain  whether  the  pot  is  filled  with  roots 
invert  the  pot,  resting  it  upon  the  palm  of  the  left  hand, 
allowing  the  plant  to  pass  between  the  fingers,  and 
steadying  the  pot  by  placing  the  right  hand  upon  the 
bottom.  Now  gently  tap  the  edge  of  the  pot  against  a 
box  or  table  (Fig.  63)  until  the  ball  of  soil  drops  into  the 
hand  (Fig.  64).  As  the  plant  continues  to  grow,  repot 
in  this  manner  as  often  as  is  necessary. 

2.  Hard  Wood  Git  tings. — (i)  Stem  Cut- 
tings are  taken  from  dormant,  mature  u^ood  of 
the  last  season's  growth.  These  may  be  secured 
any  time  after  the  leaves  have  fallen.     In  local- 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


227 


ities  where  the  winter  is  severe,  it  is  best  to  take 
the  cutting  before  cold  weather. 

Directions  for  making  hard  wood  cuttings  :  {a)  For 
this  purpose,  select  tiie  most  vigorous  branches 
of  such  plants  as  the  gooseberry,  currant,  and 
many  varieties  of  the  grape  and  flowering 
shrubs,  and  cut  off  that  portion  which  con- 
sists of  last  year's  growth  (Fig.  66). 

(l>)  Divide  each  of  these  stems  into  cuttings 
of  at  least  two  nodes.  (If  the  internode  is 
short,  as  in  the  currant  and  gooseberry,  sev- 
eral nodes  may  be  included  in  the  cutting.) 
.The  stem  should  be  cut  off  immediately  below 
the  lower  node  and  allowed  to  extend  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  above  the  upper  one  (Fig. 
69). 

(c)  These  should  be  tied  in  bunches  of 
from  twenty-five  to  fifty  each,  labeled,  and 
packed  in  boxes  of  green  sawdust  or  moist 
sand,  and  kept  in  a  cool,  damp  place  until 
spring. 

{d)  The  cuttings  may 
be  started  in  a  propagating- 
box  (see  page  226)  or  hot- 
bed as  early  as  February 
or  March,  and  transferred     «•  wood  buds. 

fi.  Flower  or  fruit  bud. 

to    the    open     ground     as     r,  stipule  scar. 
soon    as  the   weather    per-     ''•  i^eaf  scar. 

^.  O  r  o  w  t  h    o  f     o  u  e 

mits.      Where   this    is   not  season. 

practicable,    they  may  re-  /■  Two-year-oid  wood. 

main  packed  in  the  sawdust 

until     favorable     weather,  ^"=-  66.-twig  of  whitk  klm 

(Lhnus  Americana,  I,.) 

and  placed  at  once  in  the 

open  ground,  which  has  been  prepared  by  deep  plowing 

and  thorough  pulverizing. 


k^ 


228 


AGRICULTURE. 


(c)  Plant  them  in  an  oblique  position,  leaving  the  up- 
per node  above  the  surface  (Fig.  67),  and  two  or  three 
inches  apart  in  rows  four  feet  apart.  The  soil  should 
be  closely  pressed  about  the  base  of  the  cuttings  to  pre- 
vent their  drying  out.  They 
should  be  frequently  culti- 
vated throughout  the  grow- 
ing season. 

(/)  Some  of  them  may 
have  made  sufficient  growth 
(Fig.  68)  the  first  season  to 
justify  their  being  transplant- 
ed to  the  grounds  where  they 
are  to  remain. 

(2)  Root  Cuttings. — All  species  of  plants 
which  "  sprout  from  the  roots  "  may  be  propa- 
gated by  means  of  root  cuttings  In  some 
cases  these  cuttings  are  really  portions  of  un- 
derground stems — as,  horseradish,  rhubarb,  etc 
But  cuttings  from  real  roots  have  no  buds,  as 
those  of  the  blackberry  and  quince  (Fig.  70). 


KIG.    67. — POSITION    OF    HARD 
WOOD    CUTTING    IN    SOIL. 


FIG.    68. — ROOTED   CRArF    CUTTING. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


229 


Directions  for  root-cuttings:  (a)  The  roots 
should  be  cut  into  pieces  two  or  tiiree  inches 
long.  Most  of  tliem  thrive  best  when  started 
with  bottom  heat. 

(^)  Plant  horizontally,  close  together,  and 
entirely  cover  with  two  or  three  inches  of 
soil. 

II.  Budding.* 

To  propagate  a  plant  by  budding-  is 
to  take  a  mature  bud  from  the  plant 
which  one  desires  to  perpetuate,  and  to 


FIG.  70. — CUTTING  OK  BLACKBERRY  ROOT. 

insert  it  in  the  bark  of  some  allied 
plant  in  which  it  develops.  This  must 
be  done  when  the  bark  will  peel  easily 
and  mature  buds  can  be  procured,  the 
time  of  which  will  depend  entirely 
upon   the    season.     In    general,    there 


*  Suggestion  to  teacher :  The  work  of  iuddiug 
should  be  studied  at  the  time  of  year  when  the 
required  conditions  are  present  in  nature. 

If,  however,  the  school  is  not  in  session  at  this 
time,  willow  switches  in  which  the  growth  has  been 
started  by  standing  in  water  in  a  sunny  window  for 
several  weeks  may  be  used  as  stocks,  just  to  teach 
the  students  how  to  perform  the  operations  of  bud- 
ding. 


^\1 


230 


AGRICULTURE. 


are  two  periods   of  the  year  in  which   budding 
may  be  done — spring  and  early  fall. 

I.  Spring  budding. — Directions  for  the  work  :  (a)  The 
strongest  twigs  of  last  year's  growth  should  be  care- 
fully selected  from  the  healthiest,  best  developed  tree  of 
the  desired  variety.  These  should  be  cut 
while  dormant,  packed  in  small  boxes  of 
green  sawdust  or  moist  sand,  and  kept 
in  a  cool,  damp  place  until  the  stockj  is 
in  condition  for  inserting  the  buds. 

(b)  The  stocks  best  suited  for  this 
work  are  well-developed  one-year-old 
seedlings  (Fig.  72).  The  stocks  are  pre- 
pared for  the  bud  by  making  two  incis- 
ions in  the  bark,  one  immediately  above 
and  at  right  singles  to  the  other,  forming 
a  y-shaped  cut  (Fig.  73).  These  incis- 
ions should  be  made  on  the  north  side 
of  the  seedlings,  away  from  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  and  close  to  the  ground. 
{c)  Select  mature  wood-buds  from 
that  portion  of  the  budding-stick|  which 
is  neither  too  old  nor  too  young.  Now 
TO  REMOVE  A  BUD.  placc  thc  kuife  one-fourth  inch  below 
the  bud,  cut  through  into  the  wood,  and 
pass  the  knife  upward  beneath  the  bud  to  a  point  one- 
fourth  inch  above  it.  Remove  the  knife.  Make  a  hori- 
zontal incision yV/j-/ ////■(?7/{,''//  the  bark  at  this  upper  point 
(Fig.  71).  Now  lift  the  edge  of  the  bark,  and  carefully 
peel  it  back  with  the  thumb  and  finger,  leaving  the 
li'ood  attached  to  tiie  budding-stick.  Look  on  the  under 
side  of  the  bud,  to  see  if  it  is  hollow.  If  so,  discard  it,  for 
the  vascular  bundles  have  been  removed  in  preparing  the 
bud,  and  it  is  worthless,  for  there  is  nothing  left  which 
will  unite  with  the  cambium  layer  of  the  stock  (Fig.  73). 


THE  WAY 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


331 


(d)  Now  turn  back  the  edges  of  the  bark  in  the  T- 
shaped  incision  of  the  stock  and  insert  the  bud,  as  in 
Fig.  73,  pushing  it  down  until  the  top  edge  of  the  bark 


KIG.    72. — ONE-YEAR-OI.D    PEACH    SEEDLINGS. 
(From  Normal  School  Cardeii.) 

is  fitted  in  below  the  edge  of  the  liorizontal  incision  of 
the  stock.  Wrap  with  moist  raffia];  above  and  below 
the  bud,  so  as  to  bring  the  parts  into  close  contact. 

((f)  As  soon  as  the  bud  unites  with  the  stock — about 
teri  days — the  raffia  should  be  cut,  so  as  not  to  inter- 
fere with  the  growth  of  the  bud.  At  tlie  same  time,  the 
seedling  should  be  cut  back  by  removing  the  upper  por 


532 


AGRICULTURE. 


tion  an  inch  or  two  above  the  bud,  so  as  to  direct  the 
growth  of  the  plant  to  the  new  bud. 

2.  In  late  sumtner  or  early  fall  budding  the  process  is 
the  same  as  that  of  spring  budding,  except  in  this  case 


FIG.    73.  —  STAGES    IN    BUDDING. 

A.  T-shaped  incision.  B.  Ready  to  receive  the  bud.  C.  The  bud. 

D.  Inserting  the  bud.  E.  Inserted  and  wrapped. 


the  leaves  are  present,  and  should  be  removed  as  soon 
as  the  scion  is  cut,  leaving  a  portion  of  the  petiole 
intact. 

III.  Grafting:. 

^ ^Points  which  must  not  be  overlooked  to  secure 
a  successful  graft:  (i)  The  cambium  layer  of 
the  scion  must  coi7icide  with  that  of  the  stock 
at  least  in  one  point,  so  that  the  sap  may  flow 
uninterruptedly;  this  will  be  the  more  certainly 
effected  if  all  the  cuts  and  incisions  be  made 
smoothly  with  a  sharp  knife. 

(2)  A  moderate  pressure  must  be  provided, 
so  that  union  may  take  place. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


23' 


(3)  All  exposed  cut  surfaces  must  be  protected 
from  atmospheric  agencies. 

Grafting  is  divided  with  reference  to  the  posi- 
tion   of  the   scion    upon    the  stock 
into  (i)  root-grafting,  and  (2)  stem- 
grafting. 

(i)  Root-grafting.  —  For  this 
purpose  the  roots  of  seedlings — 
most  commonly,  apples — from  one 
to  two  ye&rs  old  should  be  used  as 
stocks.  The  work  should  be  done 
at  least  six  or  eight  weeks  before 
the  time  of  planting. 

{a)  In  whole-root  grafting,  the 
entire  primary  root  is  used,  while 
in  {b)  piece-root  grafting,  pieces  of 
the  primary  root,  three  or  four 
inches  long,  are  used.  Thus,  one 
primary  root  may  furnish  material 
for  two  or  three  grafts. 

Grafting  is  divided,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  method  of  insertion  of    The  large  mass  of 

,1  •  ..  .1  ,1         •.  /\      roots  formed  from 

the  scion  mto   the    stock,  mto   (i)    t^e  base  of  the 

tongue    or  whip  grafting,    and    (2) 

cleft-grafting.    The  tongue  or  whip 

graft  is    used   for   both   piece   and   whole    root 

grafting. 

Directions  for  root-grafting  :  (a)  Hold  the  stock  or 
scion  which  is  to  be  cut  in  the  left  hand,  with  the  end 
supported  by  the  index  finger. 


FIG.     74. — ONE- 
YEAR-OLD  PIECE- 
ROOT    GRAFT, 


scion.     (From  Nor- 
mal Garden.) 


234 


AGRICULTURE. 


(A)  Now  make  a  diagonal  cut  through  the  base  of  the 
scion  or  the  top  of  the  stock,  as  the  case  may  be.  While 
still  holding  it  in  this  position,  beginning  one-third  of 
the  length  from  the  outer  end  of  this  cut,  make  a  verti- 
cal slit  about  an  inch  long. 

{c)  When  the  stock  and  scion  are  each  thus  prepared, 


FIG.    75. — STF.rS    I\    ROOT-GRAFTING. 

carefully  insert  the  tongue  of  the  one  into  the  slit  of  the 
otiier  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  tlie  cambium  layer 
of  the  stock  into  direct  contact  with  that  of  the  scion 
(Fig.  75),  and  wrap  closely  with  No.  18  knitting  cotton 
or  moist  raffia. 

{(/)  Cut  this  wrapping  into  foot  lengllis,  and,  begin- 
ning at  one  end  of  the  grafted  parts,  [lass  the  thread 
several  times  around,  allowing  one  end  of  the  thread  to 
be  held  beneath  this  icrapping.  Now  pass  the  thread  on 
up  to  the  other  end  of  the  graft,  and  wrap  again,  this 
lime  fastening  the  free  end  of  the  thread  by  slipping  it 
firmly  between  the  projecting  and  the  united  parts  of 
tlie  graft,  as  in  Fig.  75.  This  grafted  stock  when  com- 
pleted should  be  about  eight  or  ten  inches  long. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


((f)  The  whole  root-grafts  are  made  in  ex- 
actly the  same  way,  the  whole  primary  root, 
of  course,  being  used  as  the  stock. 

(/)  These  grafted  stocks  should  now  be 
tied  in  bundles  and  packed  in  green  sawdust, 
or  moist  sand,  until  the  weather  is  suitable 
for  them  to  be  planted  in  the  open  ground. 
The  ground  should  be  prepared  for  them  by 
very  deep  plowing  and  thorough  pulverizing. 

(g)  These  root-grafts  should  be  planted 
about  six  inches  apart  in  rows  four  feet  apart. 
Pains  should  be  taken  to  press  the  soil  closely 
about  the  roots,  allowing  but  one  bud  to  re- 
main above  the  surface. 

As  a  rule,  they  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
two  years  before  being  transplanted  to  the 
orchard,  during  which  time  clean  cultivation 
should  be  given  throughout  the  growing 
seasons. 

(2)  Stem-grafting. — In  stem-graft- 
ing, old  or  otherwise  undesirable  trees 
are  used  as  stocks. 

{a)  Top-grafting. — The  method  of 
grafting  used  most  often  in  this  work 
is  the  cleft-graft,  on  account  of  the 
large  size  of  the  stocks  to  be  grafted. 
For  good  results,  however,  the  branches 
used  as  stocks  should  not  be  much  over 
one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter. 

It  would  be  too  great  a  shock  to  f"J<^-  76.— dor- 
the  tree  to  remove  all  of  the  old  top    ^^'"^^^  ^\ '"" 
in  one  season;  consequently,  a  por-  1,2, 3,4  are  scions 

^  •'  '■  which  may  be  cut 

tion  of    it   should  be    grafted    each  \"^respec\Yveiy.' 


236 


AGRICULTURE. 


successive  season,  for  three  or  four  seasons,  until 
the  entire  old  top  has  been  replaced. 

Directions  for  top-grafting:  (a)  Time.  This  work 
should  be  done  in  the  spring,  just  before,  or  about  the 
time,  the  buds  open,  or  even  later,  />rovided  the  scions  can 
be  kept  dormant,  as  in  root-grafting. 

{i>)  The  stock  is  prepared  by  making  a  smooth,  hori- 


--i-^ 


KTG.    77. — STEPS    IN    STEM-URAFTING. 


zontal  cut  through  tlie  stem.  A  vertical  slit  about  an 
inch  and  one-half  in  length  is  now  made  down  through 
the  center  (Fig.  77). 

(r)  The  scion  is  prepared  by  making  two  diagonal 
cuts  across  the  lower  end,  one  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  stem  from  the  other,  so  as  to  form  a  wedge-shaped 
point  (Fig.  77). 

{d)  Since  it  doubles  the  chances  of  growth,  two  scions 
should  be  inserted  in  each  cleft,  inclining  them  at  a  slight 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  237 

angle,  so  as  to  insure,  at  least  at  the  point  of  intersec- 
tion, the  close  contact  of  the  cambium  layers  (Fig.  77). 

[e)  All  exposed  cut  surfaces  should  be  carefully  jvaxed,  t) 
keep  out  air  and  moisture. 

Grafting-wax  is  made  by  breaking  into  small  pieces 
two  to  two  and  one-half  parts  (by  weight)  beeswax  and 
four  to  five  parts  resin,  and  melting  them  together  with 
one  part  of  tallow  or  linseed  oil.  The  greater  the  pro- 
portion of  resin  and  beeswax,  the  harder  the  grafting- 
wax  will  be.  When  this  mixture  is  melted,  pour  it  into 
cold  water.  As  soon  as  it  is  cooled  enough  to  handle, 
remove  the  wax  from  the  water  and  pull  like  taffy  until 
it  becomes  light  colored.  It  may  be  applied  with  the 
fingers,  if  the  hands  have  been  carefully  greased,  or  ap- 
plied with  a  little  stick  while  the  wax  is  hot,  if  care  be 
taken  not  to  injure  the  parts  waxed. 

(Ji)  Crown-grafting. — This  method  is  gener- 
ally used  for  shrubs,  grape-vines,  etc. 

Directions  :  In  crown-grafting  the  stock  is  prepared 
by  cutting  off  the  plant  at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  process  is  the  same  as  that  of  top-grafting,  the 
only  difference  being  the. position  of  the  graft. 

IV.  Layering. 

This  method  of  asexual  reproduction  differs 
from  that  of  cutting,  budding,  and  grafting,  in 
that  the  new  plant  is  rooted  while  still  attached 
to  the  parent  plant.  This  is  not  only  the  sim- 
plest, but  also  the  most  certain,  method  of  bud 
propagation  wherever  practicable.  In  nature 
familiar  examples  of  layering  are  the  black  rasp- 
berry (Fig.  55),  strawberry,  and  dewberry.  In 
fact,  very  many  plants  will  send  out  roots  if 
brought  in  contact  with  moist  soil. 


238  AGRICULTURE. 

1.  Simple  Layering. — Directions  for  layering :  (a) 
This  is  ordinarily  done  by  merely  bending  down  any 
one  of  the  lower  side  shoots,  placing  it  in  a  slight  depres- 
sion, pegging  it  down  with  a  forked  stick,  and  covering 
it  with  a  few  inches  of  mellow  soil.  In  a  dry  season 
it  will  l)e  necessary  to  moisten  this  soil,  and  mulch  it 
witli  dry  earth  or  grass. 

{h)  Under  favorable  conditions  roots  will  form  at  the 
buried  node,  and  a  new  plant  may  be  secured  by  separat- 
ing the  rooted  shoot  from  the  old  plant.  If  more  than 
one  plant  is  desired,  bury  as  many  nodes  as  the  old 
plant  will  sustain. 

2.  Mound  Layering. — ^A  very  simple  process 
called  mound  layering  is  practiced  where  a  num- 
ber of  new  plants  are  desired  from  a  single 
parent. 

Directions  for  mound  layering:  {a)  The  parent  plant 
is  cut  off  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  before 
growth  begins  in  the  spring,  and  is  called  the  "  stool." 
By  the  following  spring  many  shoots  will  have  been 
produced. 

[b)  The  stool  and  the  base  of  the  shoots  are  mounded 
up  with  soil  to  the  depth  of  several  inches.  Roots  will 
be  formed  at  the  underground  nodes  of  these  the  same 
summer  (Fig.  78). 

[c)  In  autumn,  or  the  following  spring,  the  newly 
rooted  shoots  may  be  removed  from  the  stool  and  trans- 
planted as  individual  plants. 

{(i)  The  same  stool  may  be  repeatedly  used,  if  well 
cared  for  by  thorough  cultivation  and  liberal  applica- 
tions of  stable  compost. 

Any  low,  stubby  plants — as,  the  gooseberry,  or  even  the 
quince — may  be  advantageously  propagated  by  mound 
layering. 


PROPAGATION  OF   PLANTS.  239 

Wherever  the  process  of  layering  cannot  be 
performed  by  bending  the  branch  to  meet  the 
soil,  the  soil,  or  a  substitute,  may  be  lifted  up 
to  the  branch.  There  are  various  devices  used 
in  doing  this. 

3.   Fot  Layering. — (i)   The  limb  which    has    been   par- 


FIG.    78. — MOUNU  LAYERING. 

tially  girdled  in  order  to  check  the  backward  flow  of 
sap  is  surrounded  by  some  moist  material — as,  sphagnum 
moss,  vegetable  fiber,  or  soil.  Tliis  should  be  held  in 
place  by  merely  wrapping  the  moss  or  fiber  closely 
about  the  wounded  portion  of  the  stem.  This  wrapping 
should  form  a  ball  about  five  or  six  inches  in  diameter, 
so  that  it  will  not  dry  out  too  quickly.  This  mav  be 
further  protected  by  an  additional  covering  of  a  heavy 
paper  cone. 

(2)  Instead  of  the  moss  or  fiber,  layering  pots  contain- 
ing soil  may  be  used. 

{a)  A  simple  form  of  layering  pot  may  be  con- 
trived from  a  tomato-can  by  cutting  a  hole  in  the 
bottom  of  the  can  slightly  larger  than  the  stem  to 
be  inclosed  ;    then   make  a  slit  down   one    side    of    the 


240  AGRICULTURE. 

can  and  half-way  across  the  bottom  to  the  hole  in  the 
center. 

{d)  Carefully  spring  the  can  far  enough  apart  to  admit 
the  limb  (which  should  be  well  wrapped  with  cloth  just 
where  it  is  encircled  by  the  bottom  of  the  can,  to  keep  it 
from  being  cut),  and  adjust  it  so  that  the  girdled  portion 
will  be  in  about  the  center  of  the  can. 

{c)  Wrap  the  can  securely  in  both  directions  with 
wire,  and  support  it  by  attaching  the  wire  to  an  upper 
limb 

{d)  Now  fill  the  can  with  moist  soil,  and  see  that  it  is 
kept  moist. 

{e)  When  the  soil  is  filled  with  roots  cut  off  the  stem 
below  the  can,  prune  back  the  top,  and  transplant  where 
desired. 

An  ingenious  teacher  may  contrive  many  simple  de- 
vices for  layering  by  using  such  material  as  is  at  hand, 
as,  chalk-boxes,  etc. 

(3)  Where  several  layers  are  to  be  obtained  at  one 
time  from  a  tall  shrub  or  small  tree,  a  long  box  of  soil 
may  be  supported  by  a  post  beneath  the  twigs  to  be 
layered.  These  must  be  pegged  down  in  the  soil  until 
rooted.  For  any  particularly  desirable  bud  variation 
("  sport  ")  this  plan  is  especially  advantageous. 

C— REFERENCES. 

"  Top  Working  Orchard  Trees."     Year-book,  1902. 

"The  Superior  Value  of  Large  Heavy  Seed."  Year-book, 
1896. 

"Testing  Seeds  at  Home."     Year-book,  1S95. 

"  Seed  Selling,  Seed  Growing,  and  Seed  Testing."  Year-book, 
1899. 

"The  Propagation  of  Plants."  Farmers'  Bulletin  157,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"The  Apple  and  How  to  Grow  It."     Farmers'  Bulletin,  113. 

"  Plant  Propagation."  Circular  No.  13,  Missouri  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  241 

"  Orchard  Technique."  Bulletins  98,  99,  100,  and  loi,  Virginia 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"The  Apple  Orchard."  Bulletin  49,  Missouri  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

"Orchard  Management."  Bulletin  59  Illinois  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

"  The  Principles  of  Plant  Production."  Circular  No.  15,  Mis- 
souri Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"  Principles  of  Plant  Culture."  Goff,  1899.  Published  by  the 
Author,  Madison,  Wis. 

"  Principles  of  Agriculture."     Bailey.     1900.     10. 

"Garden-making."     Bailey.     1898.     10. 

"The  American  Fruit  Culturist."  Thomas.  1897.  William 
Wood  &  Co.,  N.  Y. 

"  Propagation  of  Plants."  Fuller.  1887.  Orange  Judd  Co., 
N.  Y. 

"New  Creations  in  Plant  Life."     Ilarvvood.      10. 


OUTLINE    OF   CHAPTER   X. 

IMPROVEMENT  OP   PLANTS. 

Basis  of  : 

1.  Variation. 

2.  Heredity. 

3.  Selection. 

^.—IMPROVEMENT  OF  EXISTING  TYPES, 
I.  Selection  of  Seeds. 

1.  Table  of  Standards. 

2.  A  Study  in  the  Selection  of  Seeds. 

II.  Isolation  of  Seedlings. 

III.  Given  Normal  Conditions. 

IV.  Selection  Should  Be  Repeated. 
V.  Example  of  Type  Improvement. 

^.—ORIGINATING  NEW  VARIETIES. 
I.  Determining  the  Ideal. 

1.  Definite  Characteristics. 

2.  Characteristics  Chosen  Along  the  Natural  Develop- 

tnent. 

3.  Characteristics  Alust  Harmonize  with  Each  Other. 

(i)   Earliness. 

(2)  Size. 

(3)  Number. 

4.  One  Leading  Characteristic. 

249 


244  *  AGRICULTURE. 

II.  Variation  Furnishes  the  Starting-point. 

1.  Variation  of  Seedlings. 

2.  Variation  may  be  induced  by — 

(i)  Environmental  Changes. 

{a)  Change  in  Food-supply. 
{b)   Light  Relations, 
(f)   Pruning. 
(2)  Cross-fertilization. 

(a)  Limits  of  Crossing. 
{b)  Varying  Results  of  Crossing 
\c)  Process  of  Cross-pollination 
3    Bud  Variation. 

III.  Fixing  the  Type. 

C— REFERENCES. 


CHAPTER  X. 

IMPROVEMENT  OP  PLANTS. 

"  Those  who  improve  plants  are  true  benefactors." 

— GOFF. 

Variation,  heredity,  and  selection  form  the 
basis  of  all  plant  improvement. 

1.  Variation. — It  is  evident  that  the  first  re- 
quisite toward  the  improvement  of  plants  must 
be  the  power  to  vary ;  for  were  it  not  possible 
for  plants  to  vary,  no  change  could  take  place. 
It  is  these  individual  differences  that  make  one 
plant  more  desirable  than  another,  and  thaty?^r- 
nish  the  starting-point  for  the  improvement  of 
the  existing  type,  or  for  the  origination  of  a  new 
variety. 

2.  Heredity. — While  variation  furnishes  the 
starting-point,  the  desired  characteristics  would 
be  of  no  avail  in  plant  improvement  were  it  not 
possible  for  them  to  be  transmitted  by  heredity. 

3.  Selection. — By  continued  selection  through 
a  number  of  generations,  the  characteristics  fur- 
nished by  variation  are  preserved  and  accumu- 
lated through  heredity. 

^.—IMPROVEMENT  OF  EXISTING  TYPES. 

When  the  object  desired  is  simply  to  improve 
a  given  variety,  individual  plants  can  be  found 

245 


246 


AGRICULTURE. 


in  any  field  or  garden  crop  which  are  especially 
good  representatives  of  the  existing  type. 

I.  Selection  of  Seeds. 

The  very  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  select 
the  most  perfectly  developed  seeds  from  those 
particular  plants  which  most  nearly  conform  to 
the  standard  of  perfection  for  that  type. 


(E 


'.'10  ^         ▼t»         4        '  z 


n       ^s-'       7         5 


A(ricuUnrsl  Exptrliueut  Station,  Ames,  Iowa. 

FIC.    79.  —  VARIATION    IN    GRAINS    OF    CORN- 

No.  I  is  best  since  the  grains  are  full  and  plump  at  the  tips  next  the  cob,  and 
have  large  germs  indicating  strong  vitality  and  feeding  value.  Nos.  2,  11,  and 
12  are  the  next  best  forms  in  order.  Nos.  5,  6,  and  7  are  weak,  veith  low  feeding 
value  and  small  percentage  of  corn  to  cob.  Since  the  grains  f.re  not  uniform 
in  size,  the  planter  will  not  drop  the  .same  number  in  each  hill.  These  grains 
were  taken  from  ears  that  appeared  to  be  good  when  examined  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  ear,  and  shows  the  importance  of  paying  more  attention  to 
the  selection  of  grain  from  the  seed  ears  of  corn. 

Exercise  io. — A  Study  hi  Corn  Judging. — [a)  Procure 
a  half-busliel  of  mixed  or  unimproved  corn  and  ten  or 
twelve  ears  of  an  improved  variety  of  corn. 

{h)  Judge  and  score  the  imjjroved  or  standard  variety 
of  corn  according  to  the  points  and  directions  on  the 
score  card. 

iyC')  Judge  and  score  the  mixed  corn. 

((/)  Select  ten  of  tlie  best  ears  of  the  mixed  or  unim- 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS. 


247 


SCORE  CARD. 

CORN. 


SCALE    OF    POINTS 


1.  Uniformity  of  Exhibit.  Uniform  in  size, 
color    and    indentation 

2.  Maturity  and  Marlcet  Condition.  Ma- 
ture  and   solid,   free   from  decay  or   injury 

3.  Purity,  a.  Kernels — freedom  from  mixture 
b.   Cobs — of    one   color 

4.  Sliape  of   Ear.      Cylindrical 

5.  Proportion  of  Lengtii  to  Circumference. 
.\.s  4  is  to  3 

6.  Shape  and  Uniformity  of  Kernels.  Wedge 
shape  and  not  pointed,  length  i  ^  times 
width,   uniform  in   size 

7.  Character  of  Germs.  Full,  bright, 
smooth,   not   shriveled,   or   discolored 

8.  Butts.  Well-rounded,  regular  kernels, 
cup-shaped   cavity 

9.  Tips.  Filled  out  with  regular  sized  ker- 
nels,  straight   rows   to   end 

10.  Space  Between  Rows.     Narrow 

11.  Per  Cent,  of  Corn  to  Ear.     (84  per  cent.) 
per  cent 

Total 


T) 

Vi 

c 

n 

»^ 

3  z- 

(U 

fS 

10 


IS  s       o 


VARIETY    MEASUREMENTS. 

Length  Circumference 

Reid's   Yellow    Dent 10-10^ 7/4-//^ 

Learning    10-10^ 7'A-7yi 

St.  Charles  Yellow 10- 11 7/^-8 

lioone  County  White 10-11 7J^-S 

Farmers'   Interest 10-11 7'A-7f4 

St.    Charles   White 9-10 7"/ Ji 

Silvermine    9-9 'A T'/A 

Cartner    S'A-gA 7-7;4 

Student's    Name 


Date. 


248  AGRICULTURE. 


HOW  TO  APPLY  THE  POINTS  OF  THE  SCORE  CARD. 

Uniformity  of  Exhibit.  (15) — The  ears  of  an  exhibit  should  be  uniform 
in  size,  color  and  indentation.  The  15  points  allow  5  to  be  given  for  size, 
5  to  color,  and  5  to  indentation.  Each  ear  may  be  cut  as  much  as  one- 
half  point  under  each  of  these  heads.  l-'or  each  ear  that  is  larger  or 
smaller  than  the  prevailing  type  cut  one-fourth  to  one-half  point.  For  each 
ear  of  different  shade  or  color  from  the  prevailing  type  cut  one-fourth  to 
one-half  point.  I'or  each  ear  that  differs  in  indentation  from  prevailing 
type  cut  one-fourth  to  one-half  point.  The  sum  of  these  cuts  gives  the 
total  cut  of  uniformity  of  exhibit. 

Maturity  and  Marlcet  Condition.  (10) — Each  ear  should  be  solid  and 
free  from  injury  or  decayed  suots.  Each  ear  showing  a  marked  degree  of 
looseness  should  be  cut  not  to  exceed  one  point.  For  ears  less  imperfect 
in  this  respect  a  cut  of  one-fourth  to  three-fourths  may  be  made.  Ears 
showing  rotten  spots  or  injuries  should  be  cut  one-fourth  to  one-half  point 
each. 

Purity — Kernels.  (5) — Kernels  should  be  free  from  mixture  with  corn 
of  opposite  color.  Mixture  in  yellow  corn  is  shown  on  caps  of  kernels  in 
white  corn  on  the  sides.  I'or  each  mixed  kernel  in  an  ear  cut  one-fourth 
point. 

Purity — Cobs.  (5) — Cobs  should  be  of  one  color;  in  yellow  corn, 
red;  and  in  white  corn,  white.  (Except  St.  Charles  White.)  For  each  cob 
of  opposite  color  cut  2  points.  For  pink  cobs  cut  one-fourth  to  one-half 
point,  according  to  shade.     Two  cobs  of  opposite  color  shall  bar  exhibit. 

Shape  of  Ear.  (10) — Ears  should  be  as  nearly  cylindrical  as  possible. 
A  cylindrical  ear  usually  means  a  greater  per  cent  of  corn  to  cob  and  a 
larger  number  of  kernels  of  uniform  size  and  shape  for  planting.  Cut 
one-fourth  to  one  point  for  each  car  that  tapers  too  greatly. 

Proportion  of  Length  to  Circumference.  (10) — The  ratio  of  length  to 
circumference    should    be    as    4    to    3,    or    the    circumference    measured    at    a 

f)oint    one-third   the   distance    from    butt    to    tip    should    be    three-fourths    the 
ength  of  the  ear.     Cut  one  point  for  each  ear  markedly  out  of  proportion. 

Shape  and  Uniformity  of  Kernels.  (10) — The  ideal  kernel  is  slightly 
wedge-shaped  but  not  pointed,  tlie  length  of  which  is  approximately  one 
and  one-half  times  as  great  as  the  width  at  the  widest  part.  F"or  each  ear 
showing  kernels  of  poor  shape,  or  kernels  which  are  larger  or  smaller  than 
the  prevailing  type,  cut  o;ie-fourth  to  one  point.  Should  an  ear  have  ker- 
nels deficient  in  both  uniformity  and  shape  cut  two  points. 

Character  of  Germ.  (10)— Germ  should  be  full,  smooth,  bright,  not 
blistered,  shriveled,  or  discolored.  When  broken  it  should  show  a  fresh,  brit- 
tle, oily  appearance.  Cut  not  more  than  one  point  for  each  ear  showing 
inferior  germs. 

Butts.  (5) — An  ideal  butt  on  an  ear  of  corn  should  be  well-rounded 
out,  with  deep,  regular  kernels,  solidly  and  evenly  compacted  around  a 
clean  cup-shaped  cavity.  Cut  not  to  exceed  one-half  point  for  each  de- 
fective butt. 

Tips.  (5) — The  tip  should  be  filled  out  to  the  end  with  deep  kernels  in 
regular  rows.  The  ideal  tip  is  completely  covered,  but  if  kernels  are  deep 
and  regular  to  end  of  cob  no  cut  need  be  made.  Cut  not  to  exceed  one-half 
point  for  each  tip. 

Space  Between  Rows.  (5) — Furrows  between  rows  should  be  narrow 
but  not  entirely  closed.  Cut  not  to  exceed  one-half  point  for  each  car 
seriously  deficient  in  this  respect. 

Per  Cent  of  Corn  to  Ear.  (10) — The  per  cent  of  corn  to  ear  should 
not  be  under  84.  .\  high  per  cent  of  shelled  corn  is  desirable,  but  too  small 
cobs  do  not  favor  a  large  yield  of  corn  per  acre.  Cut  not  to  exceed  one 
point  for  each  ear  markedly  deficient  in  this  respect,  or  where  the  sample 
IS  .shelled  and  weighed,  cut  one  and  one-half  points  for  each  per  cent 
which  the  sample  averages  below  84. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS.  249 

proved  corn  and  compare  them  with  the  improved  vari- 
ety of  corn. 

How  do  they  compare  as  to  per  cent,  of  corn?  How 
many  of  tlie  best  ears  of  your  improved  corn  would  it 
take  to  make  a  bushel  (56  pounds)  of  shelled  corn  ? 
How  many  of  the  best  ears  of  the  mixed  corn  would  it 
take?  Do  you  know  which  yields  the  more  per  stalk? 
Which  requires  the  more  ground  to  grow  a  bushel  of 
shelled  corn?  Which  requires  tlie  more  seed  to  plant 
the  ground  ?  Which  requires  the  more  labor  to  produce 
the  bushel  ?  Which,  then,  is  the  more  economical  and 
profitable  kind  to  grow? 

II.  Isolation  of  Seedlings. 

The  selected  seeds  should  be  planted  in  a  place 
where  they  will  be  isolated  from  other  plants  of 
the  same  or  of  a  different  variety  with  which 
they  would  readily  mix,  else  they  would  be 
contaminated  by  their  neighbors  ;  for  if  they 
were  not  isolated  from  other  individuals  of  the 
same  variety,  they  would  probably  mix  with  in- 
ferior ones,  and  the  improvement  would,  there- 
fore, be  less.  For  this  reason,  also,  it  would  be 
well  to  weed  out  from  the  seedlings  of  the 
selected  seeds  all  inferior  plants  before  the 
pollen  ripens. 

If  these  selected  seeds  were  planted  near  a 
different  variety,  the  two  varieties  might  mix, 
and  the  resulting  offspring,  in  all  probability, 
would  not  conform  to  the  type. 

*  It  may  seem  to  some  that  undue  importance  is  placed  upon 
the  details  of  this  study.  But  comparatively  few  persons  realize 
the  bearing  of  careful,  intelligent  selection  upon  the  improve- 
ment of  the  agricultural  products  of  America. 


250  AGRICULTURE. 

III.  Given  Normal  Conditions. 

The  seedlings  should  be  kept  under  normal 
conditions,  for  any  variation  in  the  conditions 
would  have  a  tendency  to  induce  variation  in 
the  plant  (see  "  \'ariation,"  p.  214). 

IV.  Selection  Should  Be  Repeated 

from  generation  to  generation,  so  that  these 
type  characteristics  may  be  transmitted,  accu- 
mulated, and  fixed ;  thus  will  result  the  improve- 
ment of  the  type. 

V.  Example  of  Type  Improvement. 

As  an  example  of  the  improvement  of  the 
existing  type  may  be  given  the  Boone  County 
white  corn  improved  by  Mr.  James  Riley,  of 
Indiana.  He  took  for  his  type  a  fine  white  sort, 
selecting  seed  from  the  best-formed  plants  bear- 
ing one  or  two  well-formed  ears.  He  con- 
tinued this  selection  for  a  number  of  years.  In 
addition  to  this  he  went  through  the  fields  just 
as  the  tassels  were  appearing  and  cut  out  all 
imperfect  and  barren  stalks.  In  this  way  the 
type  was  improved,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  80.  * 

^.—ORIGINATING    NEW  VARIETIES. 

I.  Determining  the  Ideal. 

I.  The  first  step  in  originating  a  new  variety 
is  to  determine  definitely  the  characteristics 
which  one  wishes  to  develop  in  the   new  plant. 

*  Let  each  student  prepare  a  definite,  original,  feasible,  plan 
for  the  improvement  of  some  promising  existing  type  which 
needs  improving. 


liMTKOVliMENT    OF    PLANTS. 


aoi 


llG.   80. — IMPROVEMENT    OF    CORN    HY    SELECTION. 

Boone  County  white  on  left,  and  the  original  type  from  which  it  was  developed 

by  selection  on  right. 

2.  These  desired  characteristics  must  be 
chosen  along  the  line  of  the  natural  developme7it 
of  the  plant.  In  this  way  not  only  is  the  time 
lessened  in  reaching  the  desired  variety,  but  the 
attainment  of  that  variety  is  much  more  nearly 
certain. 

3.  These  characteristics  must  be  in  harmony 
with  each  other. 

(i)  For  example,  if  earliness  is  especially 
desired,  size  must  not  be  expected,  as  in  the 
earliest  varieties — for  example,  sweet  corn — the 
size  not  only  of  the  ears  but  of  the  whole  plant 
is  much  reduced. 


352  AGRICULTURE. 

(2)  If  size  is  desired,  time  and  number  must 
often  be  sacrificed.  As  Emerson  says,  "  For 
everything  you  have  missed,  you  have  gained 
something  else  ;  and  for  everything  you  gain, 
you  lose  something."  The  Ponderosa  tomato 
is  a  good  example  of  increased  size  at  the  ex- 
pense of  number.  A  single  plant  bears  about  a 
dozen  immense  tomatoes. 

(3)  If  number  is  to  be  increased,  then  size 
must  necessarily  be  diminished.  Of  this  the 
little  preserving  tomato  affords  a  good  example. 
A  single  plant  sometimes  yields  several  hundred 
tomatoes. 

4.  There  should  prevail  one  leadhig  charac- 
teristic. Continued  selection  should  be  made 
with  this  predominating  character  in  mind.  If 
high  flavor  is  the  one  character  most  desired, 
then  all  other  characters  must  be  made  subor- 
dinate. In  case  other  desirable  qualities  are 
found  combined  with  high  flavor  in  the  same 
plant,  as  is  often  the  case,  it  would  then  be  ad- 
vantageous to  breed  from  that  plant.  For  ex- 
ample, in  breeding  for  high  flavor  in  the  straw- 
berry, those  plants  should  be  chosen  which 
possess  the  highest  flavor,  other  characters 
being  given  secondary  consideration ;  but  if 
individual  plants  can  be  found  which  combine 
both  qualities,  prolificacy  and  flavor,  it  would,  of 
course,  be  advisable  to  propagate  from  those 
particular  plants. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    PLANTS.  253 

II.  Variation  Furnishes  the  Starting-point. 

1.  Variation  of  Seedlings. — When  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  desired  variety  have  been  defi- 
nitely determined,  then  if  one  will  diligently  and 
carefully  search  among  his  plants,  he  may  find 
— owing  to  variation — individuals  which  possess 
these  characters  in  a  more  marked  degree  than 
do  the  others.  But  if  such  individuals  are  not 
found,  then 

2.  Variation  maybe  induced  hy  (i)  Environ- 
mental Changes. 

Important  among  these  is  («)  a  change  in 
food-supply.  Darwin  says  :  "  Of  all  the  causes 
which  induce  variability,  excess  of  food,  whether 
or  not  changed  in  nature,  is  probably  the  most 
powerful." 

If  heavy  foliage  and  rank-growing  plants  rep- 
resent the  "  ideal,'*  they  should  be  given  a  liberal 
supply  of  nitrogeneous  food  (see  "  Effect  of 
Nitrogen,"  Chapter  IV.)  If  dwarf  size  and 
fruitfulness  are  the  desired  characters,  then 
foods  containing  potash  and  phosphorus  should 
be  substituted. 

Experiment  26. — {a)  To  show  variation  induced  bv 
change  of  food  supply.  Secure  one-half  bushel  of  pure 
white  sand,  and  sterilize];  it  by  thoroughly  baking  it  in 
a  hot  oven. 

{b)  The  tomato,  geranium,  etc.,  are  suitable  plants  for 
this  experiment.  Select  three  small,  similarly  developed 
plants  grown  from  cuttings  of  the  same  stock  (see  page 
220). 


264  AGRICULTURE. 

(c)  Pot  these  plants  in  similar-sized  small  pots,  re- 
potting as  the  sand  in  each  pot  becomes  filled  with  roots 
Place  them  under  similar  conditions  as  regards  light 
air,  temperature,  and  water.  Label  the  pots  i,  2,  and  3. 
{d)  Prepare  stock  solution  No.  i,  containing  the  es- 
sential elements  of  plant-food  in  approximately  the 
proper  proportions,  by  thoroughly  pulverizing  and  dis- 
solving in  1,000  parts  of  water  (say  1,000  c.  c.)  15  parts 
monocalcium  phosphate,  20  parts  potassium  sulphate, 
2  parts  magnesium  sulphate,  30  parts  sodium  nitrate, 
and  2  parts  sodium  chloride — adding  a  few  drops  of  some 
soluble  iron  compound. 

Prepare  stock  solution  No.  2  in  every  way  like  No.  i, 
except  that  you  leave  out  the  sodium  nitrate. 

Prepare  stock  solution  No.  3  similar  to  No.  i,  except 
that  you  leave  out  the  potassium  sulphate.  (The  mineral 
matter  will  not  entirely  dissolve,  so  these  solutions 
should  be  well  shaken  before  using.) 

(e)  When  watering  plant  No.  i,  occasionally  add  a 
definite  amount  of  solution  No.  i.  (The  condition  of  the 
plant  must  be  the  guide  as  to  the  time  and  amount  of 
this  food-supply.)  Begin  with  a  small  amount,  and 
gradually  increase  or  diminish  it. 

At  the  same  time  add  to  the  water  used  in  watering 
plant  No.  2  the  same  amount  from  stock  solution  No.  2, 
and  to  that  used  in  watering  plant  No.  3  add  the  same 
amount  of  stock  solution  No.  3. 

(/)  Measurements  and  observations  should  be  taken 
at  stated  times  during  several  months  upon  the  follow- 
ing points:  Number,  size,  and  color  of  leaves  of  each  of 
these  plants;  hight  and  mean  circumference  of  their 
stems;  number  and  size  of  branches;  time  of  flowering; 
number  and  character  of  blossoms;  and  in  the  tomato, 
the  number,  size,  and  quality  of  fruits. 

Experiment  27. — If  for  any  reason  the  above  experi- 
ment is  not  practicable,  substitute  (a)  ordinary  soil  (no* 


Y.     d, 


«     I 


I     "So.S 
.     -  ii 


256  AGFICULTURE. 

rich  soil)  for  the  sand;  select  the  plants,  and  label  the 
pots  as  in  above  experiment. 

[b)  When  watering  the  plant  in  pot  No.  2,  add  a  small 
but  definite  amount  of  water  leeched  from  wood  ashes; 
when  watering  the  one  in  pot  No.  3,  add  the  same 
amount  of  water  leached  from  stable  compost;  when 
watering  pot  No.  i,  add  the  same  amount  of  each.  As 
above,  tlie  condition  of  the  plants  must  determine  the 
time  and  amount  of  the  food-supply. 

(r)  Make  the  same  observations  and  comparisons  as 
in  Experiment  26  (/). 

(J?)  Light  is  another  factor  in  inducing  vari- 
ation among  plants.  Light,  in  some  degree,  is 
essential  to  the  growth  of  all  green  plants. 
Hence,  all  such  plants  strive  to  adapt  themselves 
with  reference  to  their  light  relations — («)  in 
the  arrangement  of  their  leaves  by  the  rosette 
habit  (Fig.  81),  as  in  the  plantain  and  dande- 
lion; (<^)  in  the  manner  of  branching  and  leaf- 
arrangement  of  trees;  (f)  in  the  elongation  of 
and  direction  of  the  stems,  as  in  the  trees  and 
vines  of  a  dense  forest;  or  (^d)  by  turning  to- 
ward the  light,  as  in  the  sunflower. 

Experiment  28. — The  student  should  be  required  to 
make  actual  observations  and  measurements  of  the 
variations  of  plants  for  adaptation  to  light  from  those 
plants  of  the  same  kind  grown  in  the  light  and  in  the 
dark  or  partial  darkness. 

Experiment  29.- — Let  him  try  to  produce  a  volublej 
stem  by  starting  some  erect  plant — as,  the  potato  or 
tomato — in  a  darkened  place,  so  arranged  that  light  is 
admitted  only  from  one  small  opening  (about  three 
inches  square)  at  one  side  and  above  the  plant.     When  it 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    PLANTS. 


257 


has  made  a  growth  of  several  inches, 
place  a  round,  straight  stick  in  the  pot 
for  its  support,  and  bind  it  to  it  with  a 
soft  string,  leaving  about  two  inches  of 
the  top  of  the  plant  free.  When  this  free 
portion  has  bent  directly  toward  the 
light,  gradually  turn  the  pot  so  that  as 
the  tip  again  turns  toward  the  light  the 
stem  will  at  the  same  time  make  a  par- 
tial revolution  around  the  support. 
(Fig  82). 

Continue  turning  the  pot  in  this 
manner  throughout  the  growth  of  the 
plant.  As  the  plant  develops,  it  would 
be  well  to  give  it  more  light,  but  this 
should  always  be  obtained  from  a 
northern  exposure. 

(^)  Variation  Induced  by 
Pruning  (Fig.  83). — Not  only  is 
the  food-supply  distributed  to  a 
less  number  of  branches,  thereby 
increasing  the  amount  to  each 
branch,  but  the  form  of  the  en- 
tire plant  can  be  greatly  vtodified 
by  pruning. 

Buds  or  branches  may  be  ac- 
cidentally destroyed  or  intention- 
ally removed.  As  an  example  of 
variation  induced  by  accident 
may  be  given  the  origination  of  the  Burpee 
Bush  Lima  bean. 

In  1883  "  Mr.  Palmer's   entire  crop  of  large 
White  Pole  Limas  was  destroyed  by  cutworms," 


KIG.   82. — POTATO 
PLANT. 

Voluble    stem    pro- 
duced by  Experi- 
ment 29. 


258 


AGRICULTURE. 


He  found  one  little  plant  which  had  been  cut 
off  about  an  inch  above  the  ground,  and  had  put 
out  a  new  growth.  "It  bore  three  pods,  each 
containing  one  seed.'"''  These  were 
planted  the  next  spring,  resulting  in 
two  dwarf  plants.  From  these,  by 
continued  selection,  the  Burpee 
Bush  Lima  was  de- 
veloped. 

Suggestion  :       If 
the  school  does  not 
own  a  garden  plot, 
the   teacher  should 
secure  a  vacant  lot 
by   paying    a   small 
rental,  or,  perhaps, 
by     sharing     the 
products.        If    this 
is  not  possible,  then 
the  work  of  pruning 
and      cross-pollina- 
tion  must  be   done   by  those  members    of   the 
class  who  can   have  access  to  private  gardens, 
and  their  results  reported  to  the  class. 

If  it  is  desired  to  secure  a  stout,  bushy  plant, 
instead  of  a  tall,  single-stemmed  one,  let  the 
student  take  the  chrysanthemum  or  cosmos  for 
example. 


FIG.   83. 


-MOIJIKICATIONS    OK    COSMOS 
BY    PRUNING. 


*  Bailey's  J'latil-Jirccdiiig,  page  139. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF    PLANTS,  259 

Experiment  30. — (a)  As  soon  as  tlie  terminal  bud  has 
become  quite  distinct,  it  should  be  removed. 

{/>)  The  development  of  lateral  branches  should  be 
carefully  watched  and  their  terminal  buds  removed. 

(r)  This  should  be  continued  at  will,  according  to  the 
form  of  the  plant  desired  (Fig.  83). 

Experiment  31. — If  size  of  blossom  or  of  fruit  is  de- 
sired, all  but  a  few  of  tlie  flower  buds  should  be  removed, 
allowing  those  which  are  most  advantageously  situated 
in  regard  to  light  and  food  supply  to  remain. 

The  chrysanthemum  or  cosmos  will  afford  good  mate- 
rial for  this  experiment  with  reference  to  size  of 
blossom,  while  the  tomato  will  furnish  excellent  material 
with  regard  to  size  of  fruit. 

The  modifications  of  the  plant  and  the  bene- 
fits to  be  derived  from  the  various  methods  of 
pruning'  will  be  further  discussed  under  the  gen- 
eral subject  of  pruning. 

(2)  Variation  may  be  induced  by  Cross-fer- 
tilization. It  may  be  possible  that  no  plant 
can  yet  be  found  which  combines  the  essential 
characteristics  of  the  "  ideal."  In  that  case  it 
would  be  advisable  to  select  two  plants,  each  of 
which  possesses  one  or  more  of  these  characters, 
and  to  try  to  combine  these  in  one  plant  by 
means  of  cross-fertilization. 

The  Trophy  tomato  well  illustrates  the  com- 
bination in  one  plant  of  the  desired  characters 
of  two  separate  plants.  In  1850,  Dr.  Hand,  of 
Baltimore  County,  Maryland,  desired  to  unite 
the  large  size  and  firm  flesh  of  the  compound, 
much  convoluted  tomato  with  the  smooth  skin 


2G0  AGRICULTURE. 

of  the  small,  juicy  Love  Apple.  By  cross- 
fertilization  "  he  succeeded  in  putting  the  solid 
mass  of  this  compound  growth  into  the  smooth 
skin  of  the  Love  Apple,  and  then,  by  careful 
selection  and  cultivation  year  after  year,  in- 
creased its  size  and  solidity  until  it  became  a 
mass  of  flesh  interspersed  with  small  seed  cells." 
Another  good  example  is  that  of  the  varie- 
gated hybrid  carnation  produced  by  crossing 
the  pink  variety  (Scott)  with  the  white  Mc- 
Gowan  (see  colored  plate). 

(a)  Limits  of  Crossing. — The  two  plants  to 
be  crossed  must  be  members  of  the  same  family 
and  of  species,  or  varieties  which  are  in  some 
way  closely  allied.  But  even  among  these  it  is 
impossible  to  determine,  without  actual  experi- 
ment, just  what  plants  will  cross  with  each  other. 

This  uncertainty  of  crossing  among  plants  is 
exemplified  in  the  case  of  the  pumpkin  [Cticur- 
bita  pepo)  and  squash  [Ciiciirbiia  maxi?na), 
which  are  species  of  the  same  genus,  yet  will 
not  cross.*  While  with  the  strawberry  and  rasp- 
berry, which  belong  to  different  genera,  a  cross 
has  been  obtained. 

[b)  Varying  Results  of  Crossing. — Even  when 
a  fertile  cross  is  obtained,  it  may  not  show  the 
desired  characters  in   the  first  generation. f     It 

*  Year-book,  1897,  p.  389. 

f  "  The  first  generation  is  constituted  by  plants  grown  from  the 
seeds  produced  by  the  cross-pollinated  flowers." — Year-book,  1897, 
p.  392. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF    PLANTS.  261 

should  be  borne  in  mind  that  "  the  possibilities 
are  by  no  means  exhausted,  but  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible that  the  descendants  of  these  hybrids  will 
yield  valuable  sorts." 

In  many  cases  the  cross,  or  its  descendants, 
may  possess  the  desired  characters  of  one 
parent,  while  those  desired  from  the  other  parent 
may  be  entirely  lacking.  In  that  case  "it  would 
be  advisable  to  cross  the  offspring  with  that 
parent  *  whose  characteristics  did  not  appear; 
for,  by  so  doing  the  tendency  to  transmit  those 
particular  characters  will  be  increased,  for  this 
tendency  is  itself  variable. "f 

At  the  same  time,  the  individual  plants  of  the 
original  cross  should  not  be  discarded  for  sev- 
eral generations,  for  there  is  in  the  offspring  a 
slight  atavistic]};  tendency,  or  a  tendency  to  re- 
vert to  the  character  of  some  remote  ancestor; 
hence,  at  any  time  an  individual  plant  may 
appear  which  presents  the  very  characters 
desired. 

In  no  instance  can  the  plant-improver  afford 
to  neglect  any  condition  or  advantage  which 
will  tend  to  induce  the  desired  variation. 

(c)  Process  of  Cross-pollination. — This  con- 
sists in  the  transference  of  pollen  from  a  flower 
of  one  plant  selected  to  be  crossed  to  the  stigma 
of  a  flower  from  the  other  plant  selected.      In 

*  Year-book,  iSgg,  p.  484. 
Wear-book,  1898,  pp.  355-357- 


2G2 


AGRICULTURE. 


order  to  do  this,  it  is  simply  necessary  to  under- 
stand the  nature  and  arrangement  of  the  parts 
of  a  flower  (Pig.  84). 


-—st 


FIG.   84.— TlIK    PARTS    OK    A    FI.OWKR. 

Paris  of  a  Flower. — A  typical  flower  consists  of  four  kinds 
of  organs  (calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  and  pistil),  the  parts  of  which 
vary  in  form  and  number  in  the  flowers  of  different  species. 

Starting  from  the  outside,  the  first  whorl  is  the  calyx  {ex),  the 
separate  parts  of  which  are  the  sepals,  usually  green.  The 
whorl  just  within  the  calyx  is  the  corolla  (<),  composed  of  petals, 
which  are  often  bright  colored. 

Within  the  corolla  are  the  stamens  {s),  consisting  of  filament,  or 
stalk,  and  anther,  or  pollen-sac.  In  the  center  of  the  flower  is 
the  pistil  (/>),  a  stalk-like  organ,  the  upper  portion  of  which  is 
somewhat  rough  and  swollen,  and  is  known  as  the  stigma  {st). 
The  stamens  and  pistil  are  the  only  organs  concerned  in  repro- 
duction, the  others  being  merely  accessory. 

The  orofans  concerned  in  fertilization  are  the 
stamens  (male  organs)  and  the  pistils  (female 
organs).  In  many  plants  both  stamens  and  pis- 
tils are  borne  on  the  same  flower — as,  the  bean 
and  pea ;  in  others  they  are  borne  on  the  same 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   PLANTS. 


2G3 


plant  but  in  separate  flowers — as,  the  corn  and 
cucumber ;  while  in  still  others  they  are  pro- 
duced on  separate  plants — as,  the  ash  and  box 
elder. 

In  case  both  stamens  and  pistils  are  borne  on 
the  same  flower,  the  anthers  must  be  removed 


inc..   85. ORANGK    BUD    AND    HI.OSSOMS. 

(I — Orange  Inid.      /> — Mature  orange  blossom.       r — An  emasculated  flower. 

before  the  pollen  is  shed,  to  prevent  self-fertili- 
zation. To  be  sure  of  this,  they  should  be  re- 
moved before  the  bud  is  fully  opened  (Fig.  85, 
a),  and  in  certain  cases — as,  wheat,  etc. — in 
even  an  earlier  stage,  since  pollination  takes 
place  before  the  bud  opens. 

Directions  for  cross-pollination:  (a)  The  bud  should  be 
carefully  opened  to  expose  the  anthers  (Fig.  85,  (5),  which 
should  be  picked  off  (Fig.  85,  c)  with  a  pair  of  tweezers,  or 
cut  off  with  a  pair  of  tiny  scissors.  The  best  results  will 
be  obtained  by  selecting  two  or  tliree  of  the  strongest 
flowers  of  the  cluster  for  emasculation,  and  removing 
all  others. 

(b)  The  flower  cluster  thus  treated  should  be  at  once 
enclosed  in  a  paper  bag,  the  open  end  of  which  should 
have  been  slightly  moistened  by  quickly  dipping  it  in 


264 


AGRICULTURE. 


water.  Now  the  bag  should  be  carefully  tied  around 
the  twig,  below  the  flower  cluster,  so  as  to  insure  the 
exclusion  of  insects  and  undesirable  pollen  (Fig  86a). 

(c)  The  bag  should  be  removed  from  time  to  time 
and  the  stigma  examined  with  a  hand-lens,  to  see  if  it  is 
ready  to  receive   the  pollen.     This  can  usually  be  told 


FIG.   86«.  FIG.   86(J. — NEARLY    MATURE 

ORANGE    FLOWER  HYBRID    ORANCJE 

Enclosed  in  paper  bag  after  Knclosed  in  gauze  bag  to  prevent 

emasculation.  loss  by  dropping. 

by  the  presence  of  a  mucilaginous  excretion,  or  by 
the  appearance  of  papillae  upon  the  surface  of  the 
stigma. 

(^/)  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  flowers  from 
the  other  plant  selected  to  be  crossed  must  likewise  be 
protected  from  insects  and  foreign  pollen.  This  is  done 
by  enclosing  the  entire  flower  cluster  in  a  paper  bag  be- 
fore the  bud  opens. 

(e)  When  the  anthers  begin  to  open,  the  pollen  should 
be  collected,  labeled,  and  kept  until  the  stigma  is  ready 
to  be  fertilized.   Then  the  pollen  is  gently  applied  to  the 
stigma  by  means  of  a  fine-pointed  scalpel  or  even  a  pen 
knife. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS.  265 

(/)  When  the  stigma  is  pollinated,  it  should  be  re- 
sacked  and  labeled. 

(g)  After  the  fruit  is  set,  it  might  be  well  to  replace 
the  paper  sack  with  a  gauze  one  (Fig.  86/^),  which 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  until  the  fruit  is  ripe,  thus 
freely  admitting  air  and  light,  yet  affording  protection 
from  insects  and  birds,  and  preventing  its  loss  by  falling 
or  being  picked  through  mistake. 

3.  Btid  Variatio7t. — It  may  be  that  a  single 
branch  may  show  new  and  striking  characters 
(Fig.  87),  and  possibly  very  desirable  ones  ;  for 
example,  the  smooth  skin  of  the  nectarine  is  the 
product  of  a  bud  variation  of  the  peach,  and  the 
mossy  stem  of  the  moss-rose  is  also  a  bud  varia- 
tion or  so-called  sport.* 

It  becomes  necessary  to  perpetuate  such  varia- 
tions by  bud  propagation,  since  the  characters  of 
the  plant  as  a  whole  are  more  likely  to  be  re- 
produced through  the  seed,  even  of  that  partic- 
ular branch,  than  are  the  characters  of  a  single 
branch. f 

III.  Fixing  the  Type. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  thus  far  only  a 
starting- pohit  for  a  variety  has  been  obtained. 
It  yet  remains  "to  fix"  that  variety — that  is,  to 
make  it  "come  true"  from  seed.  This  requires 
far  more  skill  and  patience  than  the  work  of 
securing  the  desired  variation  in  the  first  place. 

"Selection   is  the  force  which  augments,  de- 


Bailey's  Plant  Breeding,  p.  161.         \Year-book,  1898,  357. 


.oti 


AGRICULTURE. 


FIG.  87. — COSMOS   FLOWERS. 
From  same  stem,  showing  variation. 

velops,  and  fixes  type."*  When  a  seedling 
possesses  desirable  qualities,  "  it  is  almost  in- 
variably necessary  to  render  these  characters 
hereditary  by  careful  and  continued  selection 
and  in-and-inbreeding  through  several  gen- 
erations." 


Year-book,  1897,  p.  408. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF    PLANTS. 


267 


While  the  tendency  of  the  plant  to  vary  is  so 
essential  in  furnishing  the  starting-point  for  a 
new  variety,  it  is  also  the  most  difficult  factor 
to  overcome  in  making  that  variety  approach  a 
lixed  type  ;  for  out  of  a  number  of  seeds  from 
Lhe  plant  having  the  desired  characters,  only  one 


1st  YEAR         20  YEAR  ^dYEAR         4twYEAR         5th  YEAR 

SELtCTPLANT(X)«»» 


SOO 
PIANTS 


S  ACRE'S    >*> 


6ENERALCR0P 


SEUtCT  PLANT  Cl)««» 


500 
PLANTS  ' 


5  ACRES    >^> 


GENERAL  CROP 


SELECT  PLANT  (T 


500 
PLANTS 


SELECT  PLANT 


I 


5  ACRES 


500 

PLANT! 


SELECT  PLANT(T) 


FIG.  »S.— 


DIAGRAM    SHOWING    METHOD    OF    SELFXTING    AND 
IMPROVING    SEED. 


may  come  true.  In  that  case,  seeds  should  be 
used  from  that  one  plant  only,  and  these  planted 
in  an  isolated  place.  Possibly  the  next  genera- 
tion may  furnish  several  of  the  desired  plants, 
and  again  seed  must  be  selected  only  from 
these. 

IVitli  selection,  isolation,  and  cultivation  con- 
tinned  for  many  generations,  one  may  hope  to 
obtain   seeds   the   majority  of  which  will   come 


268  AGRICULTURE. 

true.  But  the  work  of  selecting  the  best  seeds 
from  the  most  uniform  and  typical  plants  must 
never  be  neglected,  or  the  plants  will  in  time 
revert  to  degenerate  types. 

If  inbreeding  is  not  possible,  the  variety  may 
be  perpetuated  by  bud  propagation  where  prac- 
ticable ;  indeed,  in  many  cases  it  is  the  possi- 
bility of  propagating  by  buds  that  makes  the 
crossing  of  plants  profitable.* 

C— REFERENCES. 

"Progress  in  Plant  and  Animal  Breeding."     Year-book,  1901. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"  Progress   of  Plant   Breeding  in   the   United    States."     Year- 
book, 1899. 

"Hybrids   and  Their  Utilization   in   Plant   Breeding,"     Year- 
book, 1897. 

"  Influence  of  Environment  in  the  Origination  of   Plant  Varie- 
ties."    Year-book,  1896. 

"Improvement  of  Corn  by  Seed  Selection."     Year-book,  1902. 

"Pollination  of  Pomaceous  Fruits."     Year-book,  1898. 

"  Improvement  of  Plants  by  Selection."     Year-book,  1898. 

"The   Improvement  of  Our  Native  Fruits."     Year-book,  1896. 

"  Every  Farm  an  Experiment  Station."     Year-book,  1897. 

"Improvement  of  Corn  by  Seed   Selection."     Missouri  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station. 

"The  A. B.C.  of  Corn   Culture,"     P.  G.  Holden.      11. 

"  Plant  Breeding."     Bailey,  1897.     10. 

"Principles    of    Plant    Culture."      Goff,    1S99.      Published    by 
author. 

"Self-Origination  of  Species  and  Cross-Fertilization."      Dar- 
\vn.     9. 

"Variations  of  Animals  and  Plants  Under  Domestication.' 
Darwin.     9. 

"  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants."     De  Candolle.     i. 

*  Bailey's  Plant- Breeding,   p.  51. 


OUTLINE  OF  CHAPTER  XL 

PRUNING   OF   PLANTS. 

General  Principles. 

1.  Development  of  the  Organism. 

2.  Purpose  of  the  Plant  to  Itself. 

3.  Mutual  Relation  Between  Root  and  Top. 

^.— HOW  TO  PRUNE. 

I.  Nature  of  the  Wound. 

1.  Function  of  the  Cambium. 

2.  Effect  of  Improper  Pruning. 

II.  Removal  of  Lar^e  Limbs. 

III.  Treatment  of  Wounds. 

1.  Pine   Tar. 

2.  Grafting-wax. 

3.  Lead  Paint. 

IV.  Pruning^  Back  of  Small  Limbs. 

1.  Removal  of  Buds. 

2.  Removal  of  New  Growth. 

^.— WHEN  TO  PRUNE. 

I.  Fall  Pruning. 

1.  Advantages  : 

(i)  Conserves   Food. 
(2)  Prevents  Disease. 

2.  Disadvantage  : 

Not  Conducive  to  Healing. 

269 


270  AGRICULTURE. 

II.  Spring  Pruning. 

1.  Advantage  : 

CCNDUCIVK    TO    UkALING. 

2.  Disadvantage  : 

Wastk  of  Food. 

III.  Summer  Pruning. 

(See  A\—\V.,  i.) 

C— WHY  TO  PRUNE. 

I.  Pruning  at  Transplanting. 

1 .  Trees  for  Fruit. 

2.  Trees  for  Timber. 

3.  Trees  for  Shade. 

II.  Pruning  to  Induce  Fruitfulness. 

III.  Pruning  to  Prevent  Overbearing 

IV.  Pruning  Hardy  Shrubs. 

Z>.— REFERENCES: 


CHAPTER  XL 

PRUNING    OF     PLANTS. 

I.  General  Principles. 

Sound  reasoning  is  the  first  requisite  to  suc= 
cess  in  pruning. 

1.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  first 
work  of  importance  in  growing  a  plant  is  the 
development  of  a  strong,  luell-formed  orgmiism. 
This  development  depends  upon  selection, 
pruning,  food  supply,  and  other  environmental 
conditions. 

2.  The  basic  principle  of  all  subsequent  prun- 
ing is  the  fact  that  the  paramount  purpose  of 
the  plant  (^to  itself)  is  that  of  perpetuating  the 
species,  and  that  it  does  this  both  asexually  and 
sexually. 

Asexual  reproduction  is  accomplished  by  the 
formation  of  buds,  which  develop  into  branches. 
These  may  or  may  not  become  separate  plants. 

Sexual  reproduction  is  accomplished  by  the 
formation  of  buds,  which  develop  into  flowers 
and  fruit,  the  seed  of  which  give  rise  to  separate 
plants.  One  of  these  methods  of  reproduction 
is  apt  to  predominate,  and  hence  the  food 
supply  will  be  taken  for  its  support  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  other  method. 

271 


272  AGRICULTURE. 

Pruning  is  an  important  factor  in  regulating 
and,  in  a  measure,  controlling  these  two  adverse 
tendencies  of  the  plant  to  suit  man's  purposes. 

3.  Another  point  which  must  not  be  over- 
looked is  the  mutual  relatioji  between  root  and 
top.  In  the  normally  developed  plant  there  is  a 
state  of  equilibrium  between  the  leaf-system  and 
the  root-system.  As  the  top  develops  there 
must  be  a  corresponding  development  of  roots 
to  supply  the  crude  material  to  be  converted 
into  food  by  the  leaves,  and  in  turn  there  must 
be  a  corresponding  growth  of  the  leaf-system — 
if  the  root-system  is  to  be  enlarged — in  order  to 
convert  the  crude  material  into  food  for  the 
growth  of  new  roots.  Hence,  when  this  equi- 
librium is  disturbed,  either  accidentally  or  on 
purpose,  the  plant  bends  its  energies  to  restore 
it.  Thus  it  is  that  pruning  the  roots  checks 
the  growth  of  top,  and  pruning  the  top  not  only 
checks  the  growth  of  roots,  but  gives  increased 
food  supply  to  the  remaining  parts. 

^.— HOW    TO    PRUNE. 

I.  Nature  of  the  Wound. 

It  will  be  seen  from  a  careful  study  of  a  cross- 
section  of  a  stem  (Fig.  89),  that  in  order  for  the 
cut  surface  to  heal  it  must  be  in  dii'ect  coni7nu- 
nication  zvitJi  the  cainbium  layer  of  the  support- 
ing stem. 

I.  Function  of  the   Cambium. — The   process 


PRUNING    OF    PLANTS. 


273 


FIG.  89. — DIAGRAMMATIC   CROSS-SECTION   OF   A   BASSWOOD    STEM 

TWO    YEARS    OLD. 

p — Pith,     m — Medullary  rays,     c — Cambium,     vb — Vascular  bundle. 


of  healing  is  carried  on  by  the  throwing  out  of 
new  tissue  at  the  cut  edge  of  the  cambium,  which 
gradually  rolls  out  from 
the  circumference  to- 
ward the  center  of  the 
wound  (Fig.  90),  where 
in  time  it  unites  and 
forms  a  continuous  layer 
of  cambium,  which  gives 
rise  to  both  wood  and 
bark  cells,  as  in  any  other 
portion  of  the  stem. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance that  in  remov- 
ing the  limb  the  cut 
should  be  made  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  bring  all  parts   of  its  circumfer 


FIG.  90. — IMPROPER    AND    PROPER 

PRUNING. 

a — Cannot  heal,    i^— Healing. 


274  AGRICULTURE. 

ence  as  near  as  possible  to  the  supporting 
stem.  This  is  done  by  making  the  cut  surface 
parallel  to  it  (Fig.  90)  ;  for  in  this  case  the  cut 
edge  of  the  cambium  still  receives  its  food 
supply  from  the  supporting  stem. 

2.  Effect  of  Improper  Prunhig. — But  if  the 
limb  is  cut  off  so  as  to  leave  a  projecting  stub, 
healing  cannot  take  place,  since  the  prepared 
food  for  the  support  of  this  branch  was  elab- 
orated by  its  leaves  and  sent  toward  the  trunk; 
the  supply  having  been  removed,  the  cambium 
layer  of  this  stub  cannot  grow.  As  a  result,  not 
only  will  the  healing  be  prevented,  but  the  cam- 
bium and  bark  will  die  back,  leaving  an  unsightly 
stub  of  wood  to  rot  down  to  the  supporting 
limb  or  trunk  ;  and  when  the  stub  drops  out, 
dust,  water,  and  fungi,  or  other  vegetation,  will 
collect  in  the  cavity  left  (Fig.  91),  and  thus  in- 
troduce disease  and  decay  into  the  heart  of  the 
tree,  weakening  its  structure  and  possibly  de- 
stroying it. 

II.  Removal  of  Large  Limbs. 

Should  it  become  necessary  to  remove  a  large 
limb,  it  would  be  advisable  to  saw  it  off  about  a 
foot  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  so  there  would 
be  less  danger  of  splitting  down  the  trunk  by 
the  weight  of  the  limb.  This  danger  would  be 
further  lessened  by  making  two  cuts — the  first 
below  the  limb  to  about  the  center,  the  second 
cut  above  the  limb  and  just  beyond  the  first  cut, 


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276 


AGRICULTURE. 


as  in  Fig.  93.    The  remaining  stub  should  now  be 
sawed  off  close  to  the  trunk  (see  Fig.  90,  b). 

III.  Treatment  of 
Wounds. 

Where  the  cut 
surface  is  large,  some 
protective  substance 
should  be  applied  to 
the  exposed  tissue. 

1.  Pine  Tar  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  dressing  for  these 
wounds.  It  is  regarded  as  an 
excellent  one. 

2.  Another  dressing  which 
may  be  used  upon  any  tree 
without  injury  is  Grafting-wax 
(see  Chapter  IX.,  p.  237). 

3.  Lead  Paint  is  doubtless  the  best  dressing 
for  all  kinds  of  trees,  since  it  is  not  only  durable, 
but  to  some  extent  antiseptic,  and  comparatively 
inexpensive. 

IV.  Pruning  Back  of  Small  Limbs. 

I.  Removal  of  Buds. — The  ideal  method  of 
pruning,  or  that  which  would  insure  to  the  plant 
the  least  waste  of  energy,  is  the  pinching  or 
rubbing  off  of  buds  that  would  develop  into 
branches  which  would  need  to  be  pruned  off. 

This  method  of  pruning  is  especially  adapted 
to  the  early  or  formative  period  of  a  plant's  de- 
velopment.     If  close  attention  be  given  to  the 


FIG,  93. — THE  WAY 

TO  REMOVE  A 

LARGE  LIMB. 


PRUNING    OF    PLANTS. 


27' 


removal  of  buds  the  plant  may  be  made  to  con- 
form to  any  desired  shape. 

By  the  removal  of  the  terminal  bud  the  plant 
may  be  made  to  put  out  lateral  branches,  and 
thus  become  short  and  bushy  (Fig. 
83),  or  by  removing-  the  lateral 
branches  it  will  throw  the  more 
vigor  into  the  central  stem,  causing 
it  to  become  long  and  slender. 

2.  Removal  of  New  Gi^owtJi. — In 
large  trees  the  above  method  is 
impracticable.  The  best  practical 
method  for  such  trees  is  to  in- 
spect them  each  year  and  remove 
such  branches,  or  portions  of 
branches,  as  growth  may  indicate. 

In  doing  this  pruning  the  branch 
should  be  cut  off  just  above  a  bud 
(as   in    Fig.  94),  taking  care  not  to 
cut  too  close    to   the  bud,  as  it  would  then  dry 
out. 


FIG.  94.  — WHERE 

TO  CUT  THE 

NEW    GROWTH. 


^.— WHEN  TO  PRUNE. 

If  the  purpose  of  pruning  is  merely  to  remove 
dead  or  deceased  branches,  or  the  pinching  off 
of  superflous  or  undesirable  buds,  the  work  may 
be  done  at  any  time  when  it  is  necessary. 

It  is  agreed  by  the  best  authorities  that  gen- 
eral pruning  should  be  done  while  the  trees  are 
in  a  dormant  state.     There  is,  however,  a  dif- 


278  AGRICULTURE. 

ference  of  opinion  among  these  authorities  as  to 
whether  this  work  should  be  done  as  soon  as 
the  leaves  are  shed  in  the  fall  or  before  the 
buds  have  begun  to  swell  in  the  spring. 

I.  Fall  Pruning. 

1.  The  advantages  of  fall  pruning  are  :  (i) 
that  a  greater  amount  of  food  would  then  be 
distributed  over  a  less  number  of  branches  ;  for 
by  spring,  owing  to  the  slow  dissemination  of 
food  taking  place  through  the  winter  months, 
the  nutriment  would  already  have  been  distrib- 
uted to  all  the  branches  of  the  tree,  particularly 
to  their  terminal  portions,  which  would  be  re- 
moved by  spring  pruning;"  (2)  that  immature 
branches,  which  would  probably  be  frozen  and 
tend  to  injure  the  tree,  would  thus  be  removed. 

2.  However,  there  is  one  decided  disadvan- 
tage in  fall  pruning  ;  that  is,  that  the  wound 
does  not  readily  heal.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  healing  is  affected  by  the  growth  of  the 
cambium  layer,  and  as  this  is  inactive  in  winter, 
healing  cannot  take  place  at  that  time.  Hence, 
the  exposed  surface  is  liable  to  dry  out  or  freeze, 
thereby  inducing  decay  of  the  wood  and  invit- 
ing disease. 

II.  Spring  Pruning. 

I.  The  main  advantage  of  spring  pruning  lies 
in  the  fact  that  the  wound  readily  heals,  owing 
to  the  aetive  condition  of  the  cambium  layer. 

*  Authorities  are  not  agreed  upon  this  point. 


PRUNING    OF    PLANTS.  279 

2.  The  chief  disadvantage  is  the  waste  of 
energy  of  the  plant  in  the  loss  of  the  accumu- 
lated food  supply  by  the  removal  of  the  terminal 
portions  of  the  branches. 

ExERCiSK  II. — To  Study  the  effect  of  fall  and  spring 
pruning,  let  the  student  remove  several  small  branches 
of  as  many  different  kinds  of  trees  as  are  accessible, 
carefully  labeling  each  branch  pruned  with  the  student's 
name  and  the  date  of  pruning. 

In  the  spring  let  them  prune  off  as  many  more 
branches  from  the  same  trees  and  label  with  date. 

Just  before  school  closes  for  the  year  critically  exam- 
ine all  the  branches  pruned.  Compare  and  tabulate 
results.  Was  the  result  in  each  case  due  to  the  time  of 
pruning  or  to  the  position  and  nature  of  the  cut  ? 

C— WHY    TO    PRUNE. 
One  should  never  remove   a  limb  or  even  a 
twig  from  a  tree  without  knowing  why. 
I.  Pruning  at  Transplanting. 

The  utmost  care  should  be  taken  in  lifting 
plants  for  transplanting,  but  even  then  many  of 
the  fine  feeding  roots  will  be  broken  off  or 
mutilated ;  consequently,  the  equilibrium  be- 
tween root  and  leaf  will  have  been  destroyed. 

To  re-establish  the  equilibrium  :  first,  all  the 
mutilated  roots  should  be  cut  off,  so  that  the 
energy  of  the  plant  may  not  be  wasted  in  trying 
to  restore  these  injured  parts ;  second,  the  leaf- 
bearing  surface  should  be  reduced  to  correspond 
to  the  loss  of  root-system.  This  principle  holds 
good  in  the  transplanting  of  any  plant. 


280 


AGRICULTURE. 


The   manner  in   which  plants  are  pruned  at 
transplanting  depends  largely  upon  the  purpose 


I'liutograiik-a  by  J.  C'r.iiK,  l'.  S.  Dfjil.  A)j 

FIG.   95. — APPLE-TREE    HEADED    LOW. 

for  which  the  tree  is  grown.  If  grown  ior  fruit 
the  tree  should  be  headed  low  (Fig.  95);  that 
is,  the  first  limbs  branching  out  from  the  trunk 


PRUNING    OF    PLANTS. 


281 


r.  s.  Dcpt.  A^. 

FIG.    96. — TREES    GROWN    CLOSE    TOGETHER    FOR    TIMBER. 

should  not  be  more  than  eighteen  inches  from 
the  ground.  At  the  same  time  the  lateral 
branches  should  be  pruned  back  so  that  the  cen- 
tral stem  will  lead. 

The  advantages  of  heading  a  tree  low  are:  (i) 
it  makes  a  tree  stronger  and  less   liable   to  be 


282  AGRICULTURE. 

blown  over;  (2)  the  trunk  is  thus  protected 
from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  thereby  prevent- 
ing sun-scald  ;  (3)  that  the  tree's  energy  is  con- 
served by  lessening  the  distance  through  which 
the  food  is  carried  ;  (4)  that  the  fruit  is  easier 
gathered. 

The  greatest  objection  in  heading  a  tree  low 
is  that  it  renders  cultivation  more  difficult. 

2.  If  a  tree  is  grown  for  timber,  a.  tall,  straight 
trunk  should  be  encouraged  by  pruning  off  most 
of  the  lateral  branches  and  planting  the  trees 
close  together  (Fig.  96),  so  that  they  will  be 
forced  to  grow  upright  to  obtain  the  light.  As 
the  trees  develop,  and  room  and  food  supply 
become  insufficient,  some  of  them  should  be  re- 
moved. 

3.  Slow-growing  shade-trees  require  very  little 
or  no  pruning,  save  the  removal  of  diseased  or 
broken  branches.  But  rapid-growing  shade- 
trees — as,  some  of  the  maples — should  have  a 
portion  of  the  last  season's  growth  pruned  back 
each  year,  thus  forming  a  compact  head,  making 
the  tree  stronger,  and  obviating  the  necessity  of 
severe  top-pruning,  which  renders  the  tree  use- 
less (for  shade,  at  least)  for  one  year,  as  well  as 
presenting  a  very  unsightly  appearance. 

II.  Pruning  to  Induce  Fruitfulness. 

As  has  been  said,  the  paramount  natural  pur- 
pose of  a  plant  is  that  of  reproduction.  Every 
plant  has  a  certain  amount  of  available  food.    In 


PRUNING    OF    PLANTS. 


28;] 


KIG.    97. NORWAY    MAl'LE 

(Acer  plata>ioides\ 
Horticultural  Grounds,  Missouri  Experiment  Station. 

the  early  years  of  its  development  this  food  supply 
should  be  directed  to  the  upbuilding  of  a  strong, 
vigorous  tree;  but  when  the  tree  is  mature,  if 
one  system  of  reproduction  predominates  over 
the  other,  it  uses  more  than  its  share  of  this 
available  food  and  the  other  system  is  deprived 
of  its  rightful  portion,  and  thus  its  development 
is  checked. 

Man  may,  by  pruning  or  other  means,  equal- 
ize   the    distribution    of    food.       If    vegetative 


284  AGRICULTURE. 

growth  or  asexual  reproduction  is  so  far  in  the 
ascendency  as  to  prevent  the  development  of 
fruit,  this  growth  should  be  checked.  Slight 
"  heading-in  induces  fruitfulness  by  checking 
growth  and  by  encouraging  the  formation  of 
side  spurs  upon  which  fruit  may  be  borne."* 

In  extreme  cases,  where  a  tree  has  never 
fruited,  the  growth  may  be  checked  by  reducing 
the  food  supply.  This  may  be  done  by  with- 
holding fertilizers,  or  stopping  cultivation  and 
seeding  down  in  grass  or  clover  for  a  few  years, 
or  by  judicious  root  pruning. 

Root  Pruning. — Root  pruning  is  attended  by 
considerable  risk,  as  the  equilibrum  between 
root-system  and  leaf-system  is  thus  destroyed. 

There  is  less  danger  of  injury  to  the  tree  when 
the  work  is  done  in  spring,  as  evaporation  is 
less,  and  the  conditions  at  this  season  of  the 
year  are  more  favorable  for  the  readjustment  of 
the  growth. 

Roots  are  sometimes  pruned  in  summer,  when 
the  wood  and  fruit  buds  are  developing  for  the 
next  year;  thus  the  formation  of  fruit  buds  would 
be  encouraged.  But  at  this  period  of  the  year  the 
process  is  attended  by  a  greater  risk,  as  evapo- 
ration is  very  great. 

The  work  is  done  by  making  a  circular  ditch 
around  the  tree  at  a  distance  from  the  trunk 
corresponding  to  the  tips  of  the  branches.     One 

*  Bailey's  Principles  »/  Agriculture,  p.  i66. 


PRUNING   OF    PLANTS.  285 

should  be  extremely  cautious  as  to  the  extent  of 
the  root  surface  removed,  since  the  small,  grow- 
ing roots  are  the  feeding  roots  upon  which  the 
plant  is  dependent  for  nourishment. 

III.  Pruning  to  Prevent  Overbearing. 

If  sexual  reproduction  or  the  development  of 
fruit  predominates  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be 
detrimental  to  vegetative  growth,  it  should  be 
checked  by  the  removal  of  fruit  buds,  or  a  por- 
tion of  the  fruit,  or  even  of  some  of  the  fruit- 
bearing  branches.  At  the  same  time  the 
vegetative  growth  should  be  encouraged  by 
increasing  the  food  supply  through  renewed 
cultivation  and  the  application  of  nitrogenous 
fertilizers. 

IV.  Pruning  Hardy  Shrubs. 

If  the  shrubs  are  grown  for  a  hedge — as, 
the  barberry  {Berberis  vulgaris),  burning-bush 
{Pyrus  Japonica),  or  osage  orange — the  new 
growth  should  be  sheared  each  year,  forming  a 
compact  head. 

I.  Early  Flowering  Shrubs,  such  as  lilac, 
syringa,  weigelia,  and  many  roses,  which  pro- 
duce blossoms  from  buds  developed  the  previous 
summer,  should  be  pruned  after  they  have 
bloomed.  The  terminal  bud  should  be  pinched 
out  of  the  new  growth  to  induce  lateral  branches, 
which  will  develop  blossom  buds  for  the  next 
year.  Pruning  these  shrubs  in  early  spring 
would  remove  the  blossom-bearing  wood. 


286  AGRICULTURE. 

2.  Shrubs  which  produce  their  blossoms  from 
buds  produced  the  same  stwimer,  such  as  the 
althea,  hydrangea,  and  button  bush,  should  be 
pruned  in  early  spring  to  increase  the  blossom- 
bearing  wood. 

To  admit  more  freely  the  air  and  light,  the  old 
branches — and,  if  too  thick,  some  of  the  entire  flowering 
stems — should  be  cut  out.  This  will  tend  to  increase 
the  size  of  the  blossoms,  which  may  be  further  enlarged 
by  pinching  out  some  of  the  flower  buds.  (See  "  Plant 
Improvement.") 

Exercise  12. — An  expedition  should  be  made  to  an 
orchard  or  grove,  for  the  purpose  of  observing  the  actual 
conditions  of  all  pliases  of  the  work  suggested  in  this 
chapter.  A  written  report  should  be  required,  touching 
upon  all  the  points  of  the  outline,  which  are  exemplified 
by  any  plants  seen  during  the  trip,  (a)  Note  upon  a 
mature  plant  the  effect,  upon  its  use  and  upon  its 
strength,  produced  by  correct,  incorrect,  or  no  pruning 
in  its  early  stages  of  development. 

{b)  If  in  fruiting  season,  do  you  note  any  trees  which 
are  overbearing?  Any  that  are  not  bearing?  Can  you 
see  why  ?     How  would  you  effect  a  change  ? 

{c)  Note  wounds  that  are  healing.  Describe  and  ex- 
plain. Do  you  note  any  that  have  not  healed  ?  Why? 
Could  this  condition  have  been  prevented  ?  K.xplain. 
How  will  it  affect  the  tree?    What  treatment  would  you 

advise  ? 

/>.— REP^ERENCES. 

"  Pruning  and  Trainingof  Grapes."  Year-book,  1896.  United 
States  Department  of  .Agriculture. 

"  Principles  of  Pruning  and  Care  of  Wounds  in  Woody  Plants.' 
Year-book,  1S95. 

"  Pruning  of  Trees  and  (^ther  Plants."     Year-book,  189S. 

"  The  Pruning  Book."     Bailey.      1S99.      10. 

"  The  American  Fruit  Culturist."     Thomas.     1897. 


OUTLINE    OF    CHAPTER    XII. 

ENEMIES    OF    PLANTS. 

^.—INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 

I.  General  Characters  of  Insects. 
II.  Metamorphosis. 

III.  Apparatus  Needed  in  Collecting"  ts^rd  Rearin?^ 
Insects. 

1.  Net. 

2.  Cyanide  Bottle. 

3.  Breediii^-jars. 

IV.  Field  Trip. 

V.  Laboratory  Studies. 

1 .  Study  of  the  Live  Insect. 

2.  Grasshopper. 

3.  Nymph. 

4.  Butterfly,  or  Moth. 

5.  Caterpillar. 

VI.  Economic  Classification  of  Insects. 

1.  Group  I. —  With  Biting  Month-parts. 

2.  Group  II. —  With  Sticking  Mouth-parts. 

VII.  Preventives. 

1.  Renurval  of  De'bris. 

2.  Change  of  Crops. 

VIII.  Insecticides. 

1.  Group  I. — Poisonous  Insecticides. 

2.  Group  II. — Contact  Insecticides. 

387 


288  AGRICULTURE. 

IX.  Study  on  Sprayin£(. 

X.  Natural  Enemies. 

1.  The  Birds. 

2.  Predaceous  Insects. 

(i)  Specific  Examples. 
(2)  Required  Exercise. 

XL  Specific  Examples  of  Injurious  Insects. 

1.  Plant-lice. 

2.  Rose-slug. 

3.  Tent-caterpillar. 

4.  Forest  Tent-caterpillar. 

5.  Codling-moth. 

6.  The  Borers. 

(i)  Example:  The  Round-headed  Apple-tree 

Borer. 
(2)  Preventives. 

^.—INJURIOUS  FUNGI. 

I.  Specific  Examples. 

1.  Brown  Rot. 

2.  Black  Rot. 

3.  Bitter  Rot. 

4.  Apple  Scab. 

II.  Fungicides. 

1.  Bordeaux  Mixture.     Dust  Bordeaux. 

2.  Ammoniacal  Copper  Carbonate. 

C— REFERENCES. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

ENEMIES     OF     PLANTS. 

In  dealing  with  plants  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant problems  which  arises  is  how  to  meet 
their  enemies.  In  order  to  do  this  one  must 
know  something  of  the  nature  and  habits  of 
each  particular  species  which  he  needs  to  con- 
trol. Actual  observation  of  them  at  work  is  the 
best  means  of  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  the 
enemies  of  plants.  But  some  good  work  on  in- 
sects and  fungi  (like  those  listed  at  the  end  of 
the  chapter)  should  be  consulted,  or  if  none  of 
these  are  at  hand,  one  should  write  to  one's  own 
State  Entomologist  for  advice  and  literature. 

These  enemies  may  be  divided  into  two  great 
classes:  (i)  animal  forms,  (2)  plant  forms. 
Among  animal  forms  the  most  important  ene- 
mies of  plants  are  injurious  insects. 

y4.— INJURIOUS   INSECTS. 

I.  The  General  Characters  of  Insects 

in  the  adult  state  are  one  pair  of  antennae;  three 
body  divisions,  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen ; 
three  pairs  of  legs,  and  two  pairs  of  wings. 

289 


290  AGRICULTURE. 

II.  Metamorphosis,  or  Development,  of  Insects. 

All  insects  develop  from  egg's,  and  all  undergo 
a  more  or  less  marked  change  in  form  during 
their  life-cycle.* 

Many  insects  when  they  emerge  irom  the  egg 
are  much  like  the  adult  form.  These  nymphs, 
as  they  are  called,  have  no  wings.  They  feed 
greedily,  and  as  growth  demands  the  hardened 
skins  split  and  are  cast — that  is,  the  insects  molt. 
The  wings,  if  wings  are  present  in  the  adult 
stage,  develop  as  little  pads,  which  grow  larger 
with  each  molt  until  the  adult  stao^e  is  reached, 
when  growth  ceases.  This  method  of  develop- 
ment is  called  incomplete  metamorpJiosis,  the 
three  stages  of  which  are  egg,  nymph,  and  adult. 
Common  examples  of  this  method  of  develop- 
ment are  grasshoppers,  crickets,  plant-lice,  and 
dragon-flies. 

Many  other  insects,  when  they  leave  the  egg, 
differ  markedly  in  form  from  that  of  the  adult. 
These  caterpillars,  grubs,  maggots,  etc.,  as  the 
case  may  be,  are  called  the  larva;.  In  this  larval 
or  second  stage  they  feed,  grow,  and  molt,  but 
do  not  change  their  form.  When  they  are  full 
grown  they  stop  eating,  become  restless,  and 
pass  into  the  third  stage  of  their  development 
(that  of  the  pupa),  some  attaching  themselves  to 
a  stick  or  leaf,  others  spinning  a  cocoon,  while 

*  Those   insects    beloiiginjj   to  the   small   order    Tliysiuntra    un- 
"iergo  no  metamorphosis. 


ENEMIES    OF    PLANTS. 


291 


still  others  form  a  leathery  case  and  bury  them- 
selves in  the  ground.  Here  they  remain  quiet 
for  a  time,  when  the  pupa-cases  split  open  and 
the  adult  forms  emerge,  lay  their  eggs,  and  thus 


FIG.    98. NET    FOR    COLLECTING    INSECTS. 

their  life-cycle  is  completed,  and  the  life-cycle 
of  another  generation  is  begun. 

III.  Apparatus  Needed  in  Collecting  and  Rear- 
ing Insects. 

A  few  simple,  inexpensive  articles  are  all  that  is 
necessary.  Nets,  cyanide  bottles  (Fig.  99),  and  a 
few  empty  bottles  will  be   needed  in  collecting. 

I.  The  7iet  may  be  made  by  bending  a  heavy 
wire  into  a  circle  about  a  foot  in  diameter,  turn- 
ing the  ends  of  the  wire  out,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
98.  For  a  handle  an  old  broomstick  may  be 
used.  A  hole  should  be  made  in  the  end  by 
burnincr  it  with  a  hot  iron  rod  or  borintr  it  with 
a  small  bit.  Now  fasten  the  ends  of  the  wire 
firmly  into  this  hole  with  pegs  or  nails.  Make 
a  cheese-cloth  sack  a  yard  long,  round  one  cor- 


292 


AGRICULTURE. 


ner  off,  and  firmly  sew  the  open  end  to  the  wire, 
as  in  Fig.  98. 

2.  Cyanide  Bottle  for  Ki/thij^  Insects. — Place 
in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  which  will  hold  about 
a  pint,  a  few  small  pieces  of  potassium  cyanide. 
This  should  be  handled  with  great  care,  as  it  is 


Passive  ^n 


FIG.    99. — CVAMDK    liOTTLK, 


■     IIG.   100. — KREEDING-JAR 
FOR    RKARING    INSECTS. 


extremely  poisonoits.  Now  cover  the  c)anide 
with  a  layer  of  plaster  of  Paris.  Thoroughly 
moisten  the  plaster  of  Paris  with  water,  pouring 
it  in  slowly  through  a  funnel  to  prevent  the 
sides  of  the  bottle  from  being  smeared.  Let  it 
stand  until  the  plaster  of  Paris  sets.  Remove 
any  surplus  water,  and  allow  the  bottle  to  be- 
come   thoroughly    dry    before    using.      Tightly 


ENEMrc^S    OF    PLANTS.  293 

close  the  bottle  with  a  cork  thick  enough  to  be 
easily  removed  (Fig.  99). 

3.  //r^^rt'/?Z;f^-/'rt'ri  for  rearing  insects  should  be 
prepared  before  the  insects  are  collected.  Place 
about  two  inches  of  clean  sand  in  the  bottom  of 
glass  fruit-jars  ;  moisten  the  sand,  and  provide 
covers  of  cheese-cloth,  or  mosquito-netting,  and 
narrow  rubber  bands  to  keep  them  in  place. 

IV.  Field  Trip. 

Equij)pecl  with  net,  cyanide  bottle,  and  empty  bottles 
for  the  reception  of  live  insects,  the  class  should  make 
afield  trip  to  study  the  habitat  and  the  habits  of  insects, 
and  to  collect  their  own  material  for  laboratory  work. 

(a)  Look  in  the  grass  and  weeds,  under  leaves,  stones 
and  boards,  and  on  the  bark  of  trees.  Are  some  insects 
harder  to  find  than  others?  Why?  Why  do  you  find 
certain  kinds  in  one  place  rather  than  in  another?  Ob- 
serve especially  upon  what  plants  and  what  part  of  the 
plant  each  species  is  found  feeding.  Collect  a  portion 
of  tliis  plant  to  place  in  the  breeding-jar  with  this  insect 
when  you  get  home.  Notice  how  the  plant  has  been 
affected  by  the  feeding  of  the  insect.  Are  there  any 
holes  in  the  leaves  or  stem  ?  How  were  they  made  ?  In 
what  stage  of  the  development  of  tiie  insect  was  the 
damage  done  ?     (See  "  Water  Forms,"  a  and  d.) 

V.  Laboratory  Studies. 

I.  Sfuiiy  of  the  Live  Insect. — Keep  each  species  of  in- 
sect in  the  breeding-jars  supplied  with  fresh  food,  and 
watch  each  through  all  tlie  subsequent  changes  of  devel- 
opment. 

{a)   Make  careful  notes  and  drawings  on  each  stage. 

(b)  Does  the  insect  eat  the  tissue  or  simply  suck  the 
juices  of  its  plant-food  ?  Hovi  does  it  obtain  its  food  in 
each  stage  of  development  ? 


294 


AGRICULTURE. 


{c)  Will  any  of  the  insects  in  the  larval  or  adult  form 
eat  other  insects  in  any  stage  cf  development  ? 

Water  Forms. — If  the  students  have  access  to  a  pond 
or  stream,  it  would  be  both   interesting  and  instructive 


FIG.   lOI. ^COLLECTING    INSECTS. 


to  {a)  collect  forms  which  pass  through  some   or  all  the 
stages  of  development  in  the  water. 

{d)  Take  a  quantity  of  the  mud  and  water  in  which 
these  water  forms  are  found,  together  with  algae,  or 
other  food,  back  to  the  laboratory,  and  place  with  the 
different  species  in  breeding-jars  similar  to  that  in  Fig. 

lOO. 

(c)  Observe  all  changes  in  their  development,  and  make 
rareful  notes  and  drawings  of  er.ch  stage. 

{(/)  If  there  are  a  number  of  any   one   kind,  it  would 


ENEMIES    OF    PLANTS.  295 

be  well  to  preserve  some  of  them  in  a  solution  of  forma- 
lin (made  by  mixing  one  part  of  formaldehyde,  40  per 
cent.,  with  19  parts  of  water)  for  museum  specimens.  If 
possible,  have  each  stage  of  every  species  represented  in 
your  collection  of  specimens. 

2.  llie  Grasshopper. — Find  the  three  body  divisions — 
head,  thorax,  and  abdomen. 

The  Head. — (1)  Find  the  antennm  (slender  feelers). 
How  many  segments  in  each  ?     Draw. 

(2)  Find  the  compound  eyes.  Examine  a  portion  of  one 
under  the  low  power  of  the  microscope.  What  is  the 
general  shape  of  these  parts,  ov  facets,  of  the  eye  ?  Draw 
several  of  them.  In  what  direction  can  the  grasshopper 
see  ? 

(3)  How  many  ocelli,  or  simple  eyes,  do  you  find  ? 

(4)  Mouth-parts. — {a)  Find  the  labrum,  or  upper  lip. 
Lift  and  remove  it.     Draw. 

{b)  Note  the  mandibles,  or  true  jaws,  exposed  by  the 
removal  of  the  labrum.  In  what  direction  can  you  move 
them  ?  Take  out  one.  Draw.  Does  the  grasshopper 
obtain  its  food  by  biting  or  sucking  ? 

[c)  Find  the  labium,  or  lower  lip.  Remove  it.  Draw. 
Is  it  a  single  appendage  or  two  united  ? 

((/)  Look  for  the  labial  palpi  attached  to  the  labium. 
How  many  segments  in  ^Ach. palpus  ? 

(^)  Find  the  maxillcc,  ]nst  in  front  of  the  labium.  These 
each  consist  of  three  parts  united  at  the  base  ;  the  outer 
one,  the  maxillary  palpus j  the  middle  one,  a  spoon- 
shaped  piece,  the  galea  ;  the  inner  piece,  the  lacinia, 
[fnaxilla  proper).     Draw. 

(5)  Take  a  fresh  specimen  and  draw  a  front  view  of 
the  head,  labeling  all  the  parts.* 

*  Every  question  in  the  above  outline  should  be  answered  by- 
actual  observations  upon  the  insects.  It  may  be  that  the  student 
will  be  better  able  to  answer  some  of  these  questions,  after  hav- 
ing made  the  laboratory  study  of  the  live  insect. 


296  AGRICULTURES. 

The  Thorax. — The  segments  of  the  thorax  are  the 
prothorax,  viesot/iorax,  and  metathorax.  (i)  What  append- 
ages has  each?  Look  on  the  mesothorax,  just  above 
the  legs,  for  a  pair  of  spiracles  or  breathing  pores.  Do 
you  find  another  pair  between  mesothorax  and  meta- 
thorax ?     (2)  Draw  the  thorax,  and  label  the  parts. 

The  Legs. — (i)  How  do  the  first  and  second  pair  of 
legs  differ  from  the  third  pair  in  size,  and  in  the  direc- 
tion in  which  they  extend  from  the  body  ?  Why  ? 
What  modes  of  locomotion  has  the  grasshopper? 

(2)  Make  a  careful  study  of  the  hind  legs,  {a)  Note 
the  coxa,  a  short  segment  attached  to  the  body.  Next  to 
it  is  the  trochanter,  another  short  segment.  The  femur 
is  the  large  segment  following  this,  attached  to  which 
is  the  slender  tibia.  With  what  is  the  latter  armed  ? 
For  what  purpose?  The  terminal  portion  is  the  ta>sus 
or  foot.     Is  it  segmented  ?     Note  the  hooks  and  pads. 

{b)  Make  a  drawing  of  the  entire  leg,  and  label  each 
part. 

The  Wings. — {a)  Note  the  wings  on  one  side  of  the 
body  while  folded,  and  tlieir  position  with  reference  to 
the  body;  with  reference  to  each  other. 

{b)  Spread  them  out  and  compare  as  to  size,  shape, 
color,  use,  texture,  and  position. 

{c)  Make  a  careful  drawing. 

The  Abdomen. — (i)  How  many  abdominal  segments 
do  you  find  ?     Are  the  last  three  distinct  ? 

(2)  {a)  Look  along  the  groove  on  each  side  of  the 
abdomen  for  spiracles.  How  many  in  each  of  these 
segments?     In  how  many  segments  are  they  found? 

{b)  Catch  a  live  grasshopper  and  watch  it  breathe. 
Do  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  move  ?  What  movements 
have  the  spiracles  ?  Try  to  drown  the  grasshopper  by 
holding  its  head  under  water.     Explain. 

(3)  Find  the  ear  membrane  on  the  side  of  the  first 
segment. 


ENEMIES   OF    PLANTS.  397 

(4)  (a)  Examine  tlie  end  of  the  abdomen.  Is  it  blunt, 
and  do  you  find  two  appendages,  the  terci,  on  the  upper 
side  ?  If  so,  the  specimen  is  a  male.  If  the  end  of  the 
abdomen  is  tapering  and  divided  into  four  points — parts 
of  the  ovipositor — the  specimen  is  a  female. 

(d)  Draw  the  abdomen,  showing  all  the  parts. 

Draw  the  entire  grasshopper  as  seen  from  the  side. 
Now,  before  discarding  the  specimen,  cut  through  the 
mouth  beyond  the  oesophagus  into  the  crop,  open  it,  and 
examine  its  contents.  See  if  you  can  find  out  what  is 
the  grasshopper's  food. 

3.  T/ig  Nymph,  or  Young  Grasshopper. — Do  you  find  all 
the  parts  mentioned  in  the  study  of  the  adult  grass- 
hopper present  in  your  specimen  ?  {a)  Compare  the 
parts  with  those  of  the  adult. 

{b')  Draw  a  side  view  of  the  nympli. 

4.  The  Butterfly,  or  Moth. — Identify  the  three  body 
divisions,  and  locate  the  antennae,  eyes,  legs,  wings,  and 
spiracles.     Compare  with  those  of  the  grasshopper. 

Mouth-parts. — Make  a  careful  study  of  the  mouth- 
parts,  (i)  Note  the  two  short  projections,  the  labial 
palpi,  in  the  front  of  the  head. 

(2)  Uncoil  the  long  tube  between  the  palpi  and  ex- 
amine it.  The  parts  of  tlie  tube  correspond  to  the 
maxillce  of  the  grasshopper. 

(3)  {a)  Does  the  butterfly  obtain  its  food  by  sucking 
or  biting?     Are  there  other  mouth-parts  present? 

{l))  Make  a  drawing  of  the  mouth-parts  present  in  their 
natural  position. 

(<r)  Remove  them,  and  draw. 

5.  Caterpillar. — Make  a  careful  examination  of  some 
caterpillar,  the  larva  of  a  moth  or  butterfly — for  ex- 
ample, the  tomato-worm. 

(i)  Do  you  find  the  general  characters  of  the  adult 
insect — three  body  divisions,  one  pair  of  antennae,  and 
three  pairs  of  legs — in  the  caterpillar? 


298  AGRICULTURE. 

(2)  Do  you  find  eyes,  spiracles,  and  mouth-parts? 
How  do  they  compare  with  those  of  tlie  adult  moth  ? 
(See  mouth-parts  of  the  butterfly.) 

(3)  Make  drawings  of  the  entire  larva,  showing  all 
parts. 

(4)  Remove  the  mouth-parts,  and  draw.  Are  they 
adapted  for  biting  or  sucking? 

VI.  Economic  Classification  of  Insects. 

Insects  are  divided  into  two  great  groups  ac- 
cording to  their  mouth-parts,  in  order  that  one 
may  know  what  insecticides  to  apply  in  com- 
bating them 

Group  I. — This  inckides  all  insects  in  that 
stage  of  their  development  in  which  their  mouth 
parts  are  formed  for  biting.  These  insects 
actually  bite  off,  chew,  and  swallow  small  por- 
tions of  the  plant  or  other  material  upon  which 
they  feed.  Consequently,  they  would  be  killed 
by  poison  placed  upon  the  food  and  taken  into 
the  stomach.  Common  examples  of  this  group 
are  grasshoppers,  beetles,  and  caterpillars. 

Group  II. — This  includes  all  insects  in  that 
stage  of  their  development  in  which  their  mouth- 
parts  are  formed  for  sucking.  These  insects 
obtain  their  food  by  thrusting  the  beak  below 
the  surface  of  the  plant  or  animal  upon  which 
they  feed  and  sucking  its  juices,  but  they  do  not 
swallow  any  of  its  tissue;  hence,  poison  placed 
upon  the  surface  of  the  plant-food  would  not  be 
taken   into  the  stomach  by  the  insects  of  this 


ENEMIES   OF    PLANTS.  299 

group.    Plant-lice,  scale  insects,  mosquitoes,  Hies, 
etc.,  are  examples  of  Group  II. 

The  student  should  have  already  observed 
that  an  insect,  according  to  the  form  of  its 
mouth-parts,  may  in  one  stage  of  its  develop- 
ment belong  to  one  of  these  groups,  while  in 
another  stage  it  belongs  to  the  other — as,  the 
tomato-worm,  the  larval  stage  of  the  sphinx- 
moth,  which  belongs  to  Group  I.,  while  the 
adult  stage,  the  moth,  belongs  to  Group  II. 

VII.  Preventives. 

A  small  amount  of  time  and  labor  spent  in 
preventing  insects  from  becoming  established 
on  the  farm  is  often  of  more  value  than  a  great 
amount  spent  in  trying  to  destroy  them. 

1.  Removal  of  Debris. — By  the  prompt  re- 
moval and  burning  of  all  dying  or  diseased 
branches,  trees,  or  plants,  decayed  fruits,  and 
general  debris,  many  insects,  as  well  as  their 
eggs,  will  be  destroyed;  while  if  such  mate- 
rial is  allowed  to  remain,  it  will  afford  protection 
for  insects  duringf  their  hibernatingf  and  breed- 
ing  seasons,  thus  promoting  the  development  of 
overwhelming  numbers. 

2.  Change  of  Crops. — If  an  insect  pest  makes 
its  appearance  in  a  field  of  grain,  one  may  pre- 
vent its  devastation  the  following  year  by  plant- 
ing the  field  in  some  other  crop  upon  which  the 
insect  does  not  feed.  F'or  example,  the  Hes- 
sian fly  may  be   observed  in  a  field  of  wheat. 


300  AGRICULTURE. 

The  following'  year  the  development  of  the 
Hessian  lly  in  this  field  may  be  prevented  by 
putting  in  a  crop  upon  which  it  does  not  feed — 
as,  corn  or  clover. 

VIII.  Insecticides. 

In  general,  insecticides  also  are  divided  into 
two  groups. 

Group  I. — Poisonous  Insecticides,  or  those 
that  kill  by  being  taken  into  the  stomach  of  the 
insect.  The  principal  poison  in  this  group  of 
insecticides  is  arsenic  in  some  form. 

Paris  green  is  the  most  common,  and  if  una- 
dulterated is  a  very  effective  arsenical  insecti- 
cide.     It  is  prepared  as  follows: 

Paris  green i  pound 

Quicklime i  pound 

Water 100-300  gallons 

Mix  thoroughly,  and  strain  the  mixture 
through  a  gunny-sack  or  sieve.  The  purpose 
of  the  lime  is  to  render  any  free  arsenic  in  the 
Paris  green  insoluble,  since  soluble  arsenic 
would  poison  the  tissue  of  the  plant.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  particles  of  arsenic  are 
held  in  suspension  and  not  in  solution  ;  hence, 
the  mixture  must  be  kept  well  stirred  while 
being  applied.  In  spraying  plants  with  tender 
foliage — as,  the  peach  and  plum — the  Paris  green 
mixture  should  be  diluted. 

Scheele's  green   differs    from    Paris  green  in 


fiNEMIES   OF    PLANTS.  301 

that  it  does  not  contain  acetic  acid,  and  in  the 
per  cent,  of  arsenic.  It  has  the  advantages  of 
being  held  longer  in  suspension,  as  it  is  a  finer 
powder,  and  of  costing  only  about  half  as  much. 
Home  preparation  insures  purer  and  better 
arsenical  spraying  mixtures — as,  arsenite  of  soda 
and  arsenate  of  lead. 

White  arsenic i  pound 

Sal  soda 4-5  pounds 

Water 2  gallons 

Mix  the  above  ingredients  and  boil  until  clear 
— about  fifteen  minutes.  Add  enou"-h  water  to 
replace  that  which  boiled  away.  This  forms  a 
stock  solution  which  should  be  placed  in  Mason 
jars,  labeled  poison,  and  kept  until  needed. 
This  stock  solution  is  used  similarly  to  Paris 
green.  Since  it  is  soluble  in  water,  and  hence 
would  damage  the  foliage,  it  is  prepared  for  use 
by  mixing  two  quarts  of  the  stock  solution  and 
eight  or  ten  pounds  of  freshly  slaked  lime  with 
one  hundred  gallons  of  water. 

Arsenate  of  Lead.""* — -This  insecticide  has 
several  advantages  over  the  others  just  men- 
tioned: (i)  it  can  be  used  in  stronger  solutions 
and  in  larger  quantities  without  injuring  tender 
foliage,  since  it  is  absolutely  insoluble  in  water; 
(2)   it   will    remain    longer    in    suspension;   (3) 

*  Commercial  arsenate  of  lead  sold  under  the  name  of  dis- 
parene,  is  said  to  be  perfectly  reliable.  It  comes  in  paste  form, 
and  sticks  on  the  foliage  well. 


802  AGRICULTURE. 

being  white,  it  can  be  more  readily  seen  on  the 
foliage,  thus  indicating  what  has  and  what  has 
not  been  sprayed.     It  is  made  as  follows  : 

Arsenate  of  soda 4  ounces 

Acetate  of  lead 11  ounces 

Water 25-100  gallons 

Glucose 2    quarts 

Dissolve  the  acetate  of  lead  in  a  uwoden  bucket 
of  warm  water,  and  the  arsenate  of  soda  in 
another  bucket  of  warm  water.  When  thor- 
oughly dissolved,  pour  both  into  the  quantity 
of  water  to  be  used,  according  to  the  strength 
of  the  poison  desired,  at  the  same  time  stirring 
rapidly.  If  two  quarts  of  glucose  be  added,  the 
spray  will  not  be  so  easily  washed  off  by  rains. 

In  applying  any  of  the  arsenical  mixtures,  the 
spraying  should  not  be  continued  until  the  water 
drips  from  the  foliage,  as  the  fine  particles  of 
poison  are  carried  away  in  the  drops  instead  of 
being  left  upon  the  leaf  by  evaporation  after  a 
less  quantity  is  used.* 

Group  II. — Contact  Insecticides,  or  those  that 
kill  by  contact  with  the  body  of  the  insect. 

These  may  be  effective  in  two  ways,  either  by 

*DrsT  Si'RAYS. — White  Hellebore  the  root  of  a  plant,  kills 
both  by  contact  and  by  poisoning. 

It  may  be  applied  dry  or  in  the  liquid  form.  If  used  dry,  it 
may  be  easily  applied  by  mixing  it  with  three  or  four  times  its 
weight  of  flour  and  dusting  it  over  the  plants  when  they  are 
moist  with  dew,  from  a  little  cheese-cloth  sack  or  applied  with  a 
hand  dust-s]iray  or  bellows. 

Paris  Green  may  be  used  dry  by  mixing  it  with  ten  times  its 
weight  of  flour,  and  may  be  applied  in  the  same  way  as  the 
Hellebore. 


ENEMIES    OF    PLANTS.  303 

penetrating  the  breathing  pores  and  suffocating 
the  insect  or  by  corroding  the  body. 

(i)  Kerosene  Emulsion. — Of  the  contact  in- 
secticides, kerosene,  emulsion  is  one  almost 
universally  used  by  Agricultural  Experiment 
Stations. 

The  emulsion  formula  : 

Soap %  pound 

Soft  water i  gallon 

Kerosene 2  gallons 

The  best  soap  for  this  purpose  is  whale-oil 
soap,  though  ordinary  soft  soap  or  hard  soap 
will  answer.  The  soap  should  be  shaved  into 
the  water  and  thoroughly  dissolved  by  heating. 
When  boiling  hot,  pour  the  solution  into  the 
kerosene,  away  from  the  Jii^e,  and  churn  vigor- 
ously about  ten  minutes  by  pumping  the  liquid 
back  and  forth  with  a  force-pump  until  it  resem- 
bles buttermilk.  The  emulsifying  will  increase 
the  bulk  about  one-third;  hence,  the  emulsion 
should  not  be  prepared  in  too  small  a  vessel. 

If  tightly  sealed,  this  stock  solution  will  keep 
for  some  time.  When  wanted,  dilute  with  ten 
to  twenty  parts  of  water.  If  too  strong,  the 
kerosene  will  injure  tender  foliage.  Apply  with 
a  spray-pump  (Fig.  102)  to  the  infested  plants. 
The  emulsion  must  come  in  contact  with  the 
body  of  the  insect,  so  that  the  kerosene  may 
penetrate  the  breathing  pores  and  suffocate  the 


304 


AGRICULTURE. 


insect.     The  soap  also  tends  to  clog  the  breath- 
ing pores. 

(2)  Tobacco  in  various  forms  is  a  useful  in- 
secticide.      Its    use  is  especially  recommended 

for  house  plants, 
greenhouses,  gardens, 
and  orchards.  As  a 
spray,  it  is  prepared 
by  steeping  the  stems 
of  refuse  tobacco,  and 
using  the  tea  in  a  di- 
luted form.  Nikoteen 
as  commercially  pre- 
pared is  excellent  for 
house  plants  and 
roses  if  applied  in  a 
dilute  form. 

Tobacco  dust  or 
stems  is  an  excellent 
preventive  or  remedy 
when  scattered  about  the  floor  under  benches 
in  greenhouses.  It  is  doubly  useful  when 
scattered  about  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  around 
plants,  since  it  is  rich  in  potash,  and  acts  as  a 
fertilizer  as  well  as  an  insecticide. 

Tobacco  Smudge. — This  is  an  especially  good 
remedy  in  the  greenhouse,  or  in  places  where 
the  smoke  can  be  confined.  The  smudge  is 
made  by  slowly  burning  moistened  tobacco, 
taking   care  that  it  does  not  burst  into  flame. 


•"^^^^^^^ 


FIG.    102. — A    BUCKET    SI'RAY. 


ENEMIES   OF    PLANTS. 


305 


Care  should  be  taken  not  to  allow  the  plants 
to  be  too  long  exposed  to  the  strong  fumes, 
or  the  foliage  will  be  damaged  ;  hence,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  repeat  the  smoking.* 

Carbon    bisulphide   is  especially  adapted  for 

use  in  score- 
houses,  seed- 
boxes,  mu- 
seum -  cases, 
etc.,  or  as  a 
remedy  for 
underground 
insects,  such 
as  borers  and 
root-lice. 

It  is  a  color- 
less, mobile, 
and  a  very 
volatileliquid. 
It  is  not  only  very  injiaminable,  but  ex- 
tremely poiso7ious ;  therefore,  great  caution 
should  be  taken  in  using  this  insecticide. 
Under  no  condition  should  a  lighted  lamp,  or  a 


FIG.    103    («). — THE    BORDEAUX    NOZZLE. 


FIG.    103    (/^).  — HAND    SPRAY— CONVENIENT  SPRAY  FOR  LOW  PLANTS. 

*  Th^i-e  is  nothing  better  for  fumigating  than  "  Nikoteen  Aphis 
Punk." 


306  AGRICULTURE. 

cigar,  or  even  a  spark  of  fire,  be  brought  near 
the  fumes. 

For  storehouses,  bins,  etc.,  place  the  liquid  in 
small,  shallow  dishes.  These  should  be  placed 
near  the  top  of  the  bin,  since  the  fumes  of  car- 
bon bisulphide  are  heavier  than  air.  This  bin 
should  be  kept  tightly  closed  for  twenty-four  to 
forty-eight  hours,  and  then  well  ventilated. 
The  amount  of  the  liquid  used  should  be  in  the 
proportion  of  one  pint  to  one  thousand  cubic 
feet  of  space.  For  destroying  root  pests,  small 
vertical  holes  should  be  made  in  the  soil  around 
the  plant.  Into  each  hole  pour  a  teaspoonfulof 
the  carbon  bisulphide  and  cover  at  once.  Car- 
bon bisulphide  is  also  useful  in  protecting  furs 
and  clothing,  since  it  volatilizes  and  leaves-  no 
stain.  The  odor  is  so  disagreeable  and  pene- 
trating that  the  clothing  must  be  well  aired  for 
several  days  before  wearing. 

Of  the  contact  insecticides  that  kill  by  cor- 
roding the  body  of  the  insect,  those  most  com- 
monly used  are  lime,  soap,  and  carbolic  acid. 
These  are  effective  on  soft-bodied  insects,  lime 
being,  perhaps,  the  most  important.  Lime  is 
useful  both  as  a  preventive  and  a  remedy.  It 
may  be  applied  dry  as  a  dust  or  as  a  whitewash. 

Some  of  the  contact  insecticides — as,  kerosene 
emulsion  and  carbon  bisulphide — are  equally  ef- 
fective upon  ]:)iting  and  sucking  insects,  since 
they  kill  by  suffocation. 


ENEMIES    OF    PLANTS.  307 

IX.  study  on  Spraying^. 

Exercise  13 — (a)   From  the  f(jrmukis  given,  c(jmputc 
the  amount  of  each  material  required  to   make   one-half 
gallon  of  some  one  arsenical  spray — as,  Paris  green— and 
one  of  the  contact  insecticides — as,  kerosene    emulsion  — 
and  carefully  prepare  each. 

{b)  Spray  some  plants  infested  with  caterpillars  or 
slugs — as,  the  tomato-worm  or  the  rose-slug,  and  other 
plants  infested  with  plant-lice — \\'\\.\\  each  of  these  insec- 
ticides prepared,  and  watch  results. 

{c)  To  be  absolutely  sure  of  these  results,  place  a  por- 
tion of  the  plants  infested  by  each  of  these  insects  ex- 
perimented upon  in  each  of  two  breeding-jars,  placing 
that  portion  sprayed  with  Paris  green  in  one  jar  and 
that  sprayed  with  kerosene  emulsion  in  the  other. 
Label  each,  and  note  the  effect  of  each  spray  upon  each 
kind  of  insect. 

(^)  Did  the  Paris  green  affect  all  of  them  in  the  same 
way?  Examine  the  mouth-parts  of  each  insect  experi- 
mented upon  and  explain  the  action  of  the  poison. 

(<f)   Did  the  kerosene  affect  all  alike  ?     Explain. 

X.  Natural  Enemies. 

Among  the  natural  enemies  of  insects  are 
birds,  predaceous  \  insects,  toads,  spiders,  etc. 
Few  persons  realize  the  extent  of  the  work 
done  by  these  natural  enemies  in  exterminating 
noxious  insects.  Particularly  is  this  true  of  the 
birds  and  predaceous  insects. 

I.  The  Birds  to  which  we  so  begrudge  our 
fruit  and  grain  are  more  than  compensating  us 
for  this  loss  by  keeping  in  check  insects  that 
would  otherwise  increase  with  such  rapidity  as 
to  endanger  the  entire  crop  of  orchard  or  field. 


308 


AGRICULTURE. 


Of  the  birds  of  the  open  field  the  farmer  has 
no  better  friend  than  the  meadow-lark.  It  is 
unrivaled  as  a  destroyer  of  injurious  insects. 

The  stomachs  of  two  hundred  and  thirty- 
eight  meadow-larks,  collected  from  twenty-four 
different  States,  and  in  every  month  of  the  year, 


FIG.   104. — MEADOW-LARK   {Saturnflla  magna). 
(United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


examined  by  the  United  States  Division  of  En- 
tomology, showed  that  72  per  cent,  of  the  food 
of  these  larks  was  insects,  while  only  27  per 
cent,  was  vegetable  matter. 

The  unassuming  little  house-wren  is  one  of 
the  most  useful  birds  in  destroying  insect  pests. 

Actual  examination  of  the  contents  of  the 
stomachs  of  wrens  by  the  Division  of  Entomol- 


ENEMIES   OK    PLANTS. 


309 


ogy  at  Washinoton  shows  that  98  per  cent,  of 
the  food  of  the  wren  consists  of  injurious  in- 
sects. 

Many  other  birds  of  wide  geographical  distri- 
bution are   recognized  as  the    farmer's   friends; 


nc.    105. — IIOrSE    WREN    {Troglodytes  wdon). 
(United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

among  them  arc  the  robin,  oriole  (Fig.  117), 
mocking-bird,  brown  thrasher,  chickadee,  and 
catbird. 

But  there  is  another   class   of  birds   which  is 
much    persecuted    because  the    farmer  errone- 


310  AGRICULTURE. 

ously  considers  them  his  enemies.  To  this 
class  belong  the  crow,  the  blackbird,  and  many 
species  of  hawks  and  owls.*  Examination  of 
the  stomach  contents  of  many  of  these  birds  has 
proven  that  they  are  more  beneficial  than  harm- 
ful, destroying  many  insects  as  well  as  injurious 
rodents,  such  as  mice  and  gophers. 

Again,  some  birds  eat  more  or  less  weed  seed 
throughout  the  year,  even  when  insects  are 
abundant.  But  their  work  practically  extends 
from  early  autumn  until  late  spring.  During 
cold  weather  most  of  the  birds  about  the  farm 
feed  extensively  upon  seeds.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon for  a  crow  blackbird  to  eat  from  thirty  to 
forty  seeds  of  smartweed  or  bindweed,  or  a 
field-sparrow  one  hundred  seeds  of  crab-grass, 
at  a  sino-le  meal.  In  the  stomach  of  a  Nuttall's 
sparrow  were  found  three  hundred  seeds  of 
amaranth,  and  in  that  of  another  three  hundred 
seeds  of  lamb's-quarters  ;  a  tree-sparrow  had 
consumed  seven  hundred  seeds  of  pigeon-grass, 
while  a  snowflake  from  Shrewsbury,  Mass., 
which  had  been  breakfasting  in  a  garden  in 
February,  had  picked  up  one  thousand  seeds  of 
pigweed. 

Among  the  weeds  which  are  troublesome  in 
fields,  especially  among  hoed  crops,  may  be 
mentioned  ragweed  {Aiuhrosia  arteviisi(efolid), 
several  species  of  the  genus  Polygonum,  includ- 

*   Year-book,  1897. 


FIG.    I06.  —  FOIR    COMMf(.N    Sr.EU-EATING    BIRDS, 
a— Jiinco.    *— White-throated  Sparrow,    c — Fox-sparrow,    d — Tree-sparrow. 

311 


31-2  AGRICULTURE. 

ing  bindweed  {P.  conzwlv2iliis\  sniartweed  (^P. 
lapathifolmm),  and  knotweed  {P.  aviculare), 
pigweed  {Aniarajitus  retrojicxns  and  other  spe- 
cies), nut-grass  and  other  sedges  (Cyperacea^y 
crab-grass  {Panictnn  saiigiiinale),  pigeon-grass 
(^Chcetocloa  viridis)  and  (C  glauca),  lamb's-quar- 
ters  i^Chenopodiinn  alhuni),  and  chickweed  i^Al- 
sine  media).  Every  one  of  these  weeds  is  an 
annual,  not  living  over  the  winter,  and  their 
seeds  constitute  fully  three-fourths  of  the  food 
of  a  score  of  native  sparrows  during  the  colder 
half  of  the  year.  Prof.  F.  E.  Beal,  who  has 
carefully  studied  this  subject  in  the  upper  Mis- 
sissippi valley,  "  has  examined  the  stomachs  of 
many  tree-sparrows  and  found  them  entirely 
filled  with  weed  seed,  and  concluded  that  each 
bird  consumed  at  least  a  quarter  of  an  ounce 
daily  Upon  this  basis,  after  making  a  fair 
allowance  of  the  number  of  birds  to  the  square 
mile,  he  calculated  that  in  the  State  of  Iowa 
alone  the  tree  sparrow  annually  destroys  about 
1,750,000  pounds,  or  about  875  tons,  of  weed 
seed  during  its  winter  sojourn."  '"•' 

On  a  farm  in  Maryland  "  tree-sparrows,  fox- 
sparrows,  whitethroats,  song-sparrows,  and  snow- 
birds fairly  swarmed  during  December  in  the 
briers  of  the  ditches  between  the  corn-fields. 
They  came  into  the  open   fields  to  feed  upon 

*  Quoted   from  the   Year-book,  1S98:   "Birds  as  Weed   Destroy- 
ers." 


From  Year-book,  1898. 

FIG.    107. FOUR    COMMON    WEEDS,    THE    SEEDS    OK    WHICH    ARE 

EATEN    HV    BIRDS. 
a — Amaranth,    b — Crab-grass,    c — Ragweed.    </— Pigeon-grass. 


313 


314 


AGRICULTURE. 


weed  seed,  and  worked 
hardest  where  the  smart- 
weed  formed  a  tangle  on 
low  ground.  Later  in  the 
season  the  place  was  care- 
fully examined.  In  one 
corn-field  near  a  ditch  the 
smart  weed  formed  a 
thicket  over  three  feet 
high,  and  the  ground 
beneath  was  literally  black 
with  seeds.  Examination 
showed  that  these  seeds 
had  been  cracked  open  and 
the  meat  removed.  In  a 
rectangular  space  of  eight- 
een square  inches  were 
found  1,130  half  seeds  and 
only  two  whole  seeds. 
Even  as  late  as  May  13 
the  birds  were    still    feed- 


Year-book,  1898. 

FIG.   I08. — WEED    SEEDS    COM-  .  1  r        1 

MONi.Y  EATEN  BY  BIRDS,     mg  ou  the  secds  oi   these 

a-Bindweed.  *-I,ambs-quarter.s.  and  Other  Wecds  iu  the 
(-—Purslane,      rf— Amaranth.      ''~  r     i   i       > '  .;{.  \  i 

•Sjxjtted  spurge.  /-Ragweed.    t,r— lieldS.      '  A       Searcll       WaS 

l-igeon-grass.    A-Dandelion.       ^^^^^    £^^  ^^^^j^    ^f    VarioUS 

weeds,  but  so  thoroughly  had  the  work  been 
done  that  only  half  a  dozen  seeds  could  be 
found.      The  birds  had  taken  practically  all   the 


Quoted   from   the    Year-book,  1S98:    "  Hirds   as  Weed   Destioy- 


ENEMIES   OF    PLANTS.  .315 

seed  that  was  not  covered.  The  song-sparrow 
and  several  others  scratch  up  much  buried  seed. 
No  less  than  fifty  different  birds  act  as  weed 
destroyers,  and  the  noxious  plants  which  they 
help  to  eradicate  number  more  than  threescore 
species.  Some,  the  blackbirds,  the  bobolink, 
the  dove,  and  the  English  sparrow,  in  spite  of 
their  grain-eating  proclivities,  do  much  good  by 
consuming  large  quantities  of  weed  seed. 
Horned  larks,  cowbirds,  shore-larks,  and  gros- 
beaks also  render  considerable  service,  while  the 
meadow-lark  is  even  more  beneficial.  The 
"  quail  as  an  enemy  of  insect  pests  and  destroyer 
of  weed  seed  has  few  equals  on  the  farm. 
Goldfinches  destroy  weeds  not  touched  by  other 
birds,  confining  their  attacks  chiefly  to  one 
group  of  plants  (the  Compositce),  many  of  the 
members  of  which  are  serious  pests.  But  the 
birds  which  accomplish  most  as  weed  destroyers 
are  the  score  or  more  of  native  sparrows  that 
fiock  to  the  weed  patches  in  early  autumn  and 
remain  until  late  spring.  Because  of  their  gre- 
garious and  terrestial  habits,  they  are  efficient 
consumers  of  the  seeds  of  ragweed,  pigeon-grass, 
crab-grass,  bindweed,  purslane,  smartweed,  and 
pigweed  (Fig.  io6).  In  short,  these  birds  are 
little  weeders  whose  work  is  seldom  noted,  but 
always  felt." '"' 

*  Quoted  from  the   Year-f'ook,  1S9S  :    "  Birds  as  Weed  Destroy- 
ers." 


31G 


AGRICULTURE. 


When  one  considers,  then,  that  the  greater 
per  cent,  of  the  food  of  birds  is  composed  of  in- 
sects, and  that  of  the  vegetable  material  they 
consume  a  large  per  cent,  is  weed  seed,  and  that 
they  obtain  fully  one-half  of  the  grain  they  do 
eat  from  the  waste  of  the  feed-yard  and  other 
places,  and  this  largely  in  the  winter    months, 


FIG.   109.  — "  LOOK   OUT 


when  insects  are  scarce,  it  will  be  realized  that 
tJic  best  and  cheapest  means  of  keeping  insects  in 
cJieck  is  the  ejiconi'agenient  and  protection  of 
f)irds. 

It  would  be  cheaper  to  allow  the  birds  a 
portion  of  the  grain  or  fruit  than  to  allow 
the   insects    to    take   all,    which    would   happen 


ENEMIES    OF    PLANTS.  317 

in     a    few  years    if    the    birds    were    extermin- 
ated.* 

"  What!   vvouki  you  rather  see  the   incessant  stir 
Of  insects  in   the   windrows  of  the   haV; 

And   hear  the   locust  and   the  grasshopper 
Their  niehir.choly   hurdy-gurdies  play  ? 

Is   this  more   pleasant   to  )'ou   than   the  wliir 
Of  meadow-lark,   and   lier  sweet   roundelay, 

Or  twitter  of  little   field-fares,  as  you   take 

Your  nooning  in   the  shade  of  bush  and  brake  ? 

"  You   call   them   thieves  and   pillagers;   but  know, 
They  are   the   winged    wardens  of  your  farms. 
Who  from   the  cornfields  drive  the   insidious  foe, 

And   from   your  harvests  keep  a  hundred   liarms  ; 
Even  the  blackest  of  them  all,  the  crow, 

Renders  good   service  as  your  man  at  arms. 
Crushing  the  beetle  in   his  coat  of  mail. 
And   crj'ing  havoc  on   the   slug  and   snail." 

—  The  Birds  of  Killingworth,  Longfellow. 

2.  PredaccoiLS  Insects. — Predaceous  insects, 
or  those  that  prey  upon  or  eat  other  insects,  are 
also  helpful  to  the  farmer. 

(i)  Specific  Examples. — Among  the  most 
useful  of  these  insects  are  several  species  of 
ladybugs  (  Coccincllida-'). 

Both  the    adult  and  larval    forms    feed    upon 


*  It  would  be  a  profitable  iiivestmeiU  to  plant  out  some  Russian 
mulberry-trees  on  purpose  for  the  birds,  or  to  grow  in  waste 
places  and  corners  such  plants  as  hemp  and  sunflowers,  allowing 
them  to  stand  throughout  the  winter  as  supplies  for  the  birds 
when  food  is  scarce. 


318 


AGRICULTURE. 


plant-lice  and  scale  insects.  The  ladybugs  are 
small,  rather  pretty,  turtle-shaped  beetles  nearly 
always  bright  colored  (orange  or  red),  with  jet 
black  spots  upon  them,  or  black  with  white,  red, 

or  yellow  spots  (Fig. 
I  lo).  This  bright  color 
is  a  warning  to  the  birds 
that  these  bugs  are  un- 
pleasant to  the  taste  ; 
hence,  they  are  seldom 
eaten  by  the  birds.  The 
larva  is  equally  protect- 
ed by  its  terrifying  ap- 
pearance, since  it  is  cov- 
FiG.  wo.—Anatisiypunctata,  ered  with  long  or  sharp 
(AJr^Riiey.)  spines(Fig.  Moo), 

The  ladybugs  are  very 
common,  and  are  found  upon  plants  infested 
with  plant-lice  and  scale  insects  (Fig.  1 1 1).  The 
fruit  growers  of  California  prevented  the  de- 
struction of  their  orchards  by  importing  a 
species  of  ladybug  from  Australia  to  prey  upon 
these  scale  insects.* 

But  there  are  enemies  in  the  camp  :  three 
species  of  ladybugs  are  injurious  to  plants. 
One  species  (Fig.  112),  in  both  larval  and  adult 
stages,  devours  the  leaves,  flowers,  and  green 
pods  of  the  bean.     Another  species  feeds  upon 

*  The  United  States   Division  of    Entomology   has  imported  a 
Chinese  ladybug  to  prey  upon  the  San  Jose  scale. 


ENEMIES   OF    PLANTS. 


319 


FIG.    III.  —  LADYBUG   AND    LARVA    PREYING    UPON    SCAI.K    INSKCTS 
INFESTING    A    PEAK. 

(After  Howard  and  Marlatt,  Division  of  Entomology,  Depaitnieut  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  D.  C.) 

squashes,  melons,  and  cucumbers.  This  beetle 
is  yellowish  in  color  with  big  black  spots,  and  is 
slightly  pubescent. ;|l  The  larva  is  also  yellow 
and  covered  with  forked  spines. 

Lace-winged     Fly. — Another    strong    ally  in 
fighting   our   insect  foes   is   the    common  lace- 


Vemr-book   1898. 


-Epilaclnia  corrupta. 


a — I,arv'a.    b — Beetle,    c — Pupa,    rf— Kgg  mass.    All  about  three  times 
natural  size. 


320 


AGRICULTURE. 


winged  fly,  or  Aphis  lion  (Fig.  113,  a).  It  is  a 
beautiful  little  creature,  with  brown  antenna; 
and  large,  lustrous,  golden  eyes.     Its  body  is  of 


. — CHRYSOI'A    SPECIES. 
(After  Brehm.) 


a  pale  green  color,  as  are  also  its  wings  of  deli- 
cate lace.  Its  attractive  appearance,  however 
alluring  to  the  birds,  is  protected  by  a  disagree- 
able odor.  The  eggs,  laid  in  clusters,  each  Ggg 
upon  a  white,  threadlike  stalk,  look  like  a 
diminutive    grove  (Fig.  113,  £■).     This   stalked 


ENEMIES    OF    PLANTS. 


321 


arrangement  is  to  prevent  their  being-  eaten  by 
larvae,  not  only  of  other  insects,  but  of  those  of 
their  own  family,  for  they  are  veritable  cannibals. 
The  larvae  (Fig.  1 13,  (^)  are  as  ugly  as  the  adult  is 
beautiful.  They  are  active,  spindle-shaped  little 
fellows  with  crescent- 
shaped  mandible  s, 
which  never  seem  to 
tire  of  piercing  to 
death  all  insects  they 
can  capture ;  but  they 
are  particularly  de- 
structive to  plant-lice 
(aphides),  and  for  this 

reason  are  often  called  ^l^l^^^^^^^^^^^fi 
aphis    lions.       They 
hold     their     prey     be- 
tween the  tips  of  their  ^''«-  im.-ich.nelmon-fi 

^  POSITING  AN  EGG  WITHIN  C( 

mandibles,  and  suck 
the  juices  through  the 
long  tubes  formed  by  a  groove  along  the  under 
side  of  each  mandible  and  the  slender  maxilla 
which  fits  into  it.  When  this  larva  reaches  its 
growth  it  rolls  itself  into  a  ball  and  spins  a 
cocoon  of  snowy  white,  from  which  it  comes 
forth  through  a  circular  lid  (Fig.  ii3,y")  a 
wondrously  changed  creature — the  dainty  lace- 
winged  fly. 

Another  group   of  our  insect  friends   is   the 
parasitic  Hymenoptera,  such  as  the  ichneumon- 


.Y     DE- 
COCOON. 


(Slightly  magnified.) 


3J>2  AGRICULTURE. 

flies,Chalcis  Hies,  and  braconids.  These  generally 
lay  their  eggs  in  or  on  the  body  of  the  larva  of 
other  insects,  but  sometimes  they  deposit  them 
in  the  adult,  the  pupa  (Fig.  1 14),  or  even  the  egg. 
When  th"  eggs  hatch,  the  larvai  feed  upon  the 
substance  of  the  host,  thus  destroying  it,  to- 
gether with  all  of  its  posterity,  which  in  a  few 
years  might  have  been  countless. 

One  nfenus  of  the  ichneumon-flies  which  is 
often  mistaken  for  an  enemy  of  plants  is  the 
thalessa,  a  yellow  or  black  (according  to  the 
species)  insect,  with  a  long,  slender,  though 
powerful,  ovipositor,  with  which  it  pierces  into 
the  wood  of  a  tree.  It  will  be  found  upon  ex- 
amination, however,  that  the  tree  is  infested 
with  borers  (Fig.  122),  and  that  what  the  ichneu- 
mon really  does  is  to  deposit  its  eggs  in  the 
nest  of  the  borer,  where  the  larva,  when  it 
hatches,  fixes  itself  to  the  body  of  the  borer,  liv- 
ing upon  its  juices  and  gradually  killing  it. 

The  many  species  of  Chalcis  flies,  as  well  as 
the  ichneumon,  are  parasitic  upon  a  great  num- 
ber of  different  insects,  one  species  feeding 
upon  the  chrysalis  of  the  cabbage-butterHy.'^' 

(2)  lixKKcisE  14. — {a)  As  many  kinds  of  tliese  insects 
as  can  be  obtained  should  be  placed  in  the  breeding-jars 
antl  watched  tlirough  their  devehjpment. 

{Ji)  Experiment  with  tlie  food  of  these  insects  in  dif- 
ferent stages  of  tlieir  development  to  ascertain  in  what 
stage  the\'  are  predaceous  and  wiiat  insects  they  will  eat. 

*  The  larv.c  of  Syrphus-flies  do  much  good  by  destroying  scale 
insects  and  aphides,  in  whose  colonies  they  live. 


ENEMIES    OF    PLANTS.  323 

(c)  It  will  be  interesting  and  instructive  to  place  the 
larva  and  the  adult  forms  of  the  ladybug,  and  of  the 
lace-winged  f\y  in  the  breeding-jars,  and  supply  them 
with  portions  of  plants  infested  by  aphides,  and  watch 
what  takes  place. 

{(f)  In  which  of  these  stages  did  your  specimen  of 
ladybug  devour  the  plant-lice  ?     How  ? 

(e)  In  which  of  these  stages  did  your  specimen  of  lace- 
winged  fly  devour  the  plant-lice?     How? 

XI.  Specific  Examples  of  Injurious  Insects. 

I.  Plant-lice  are  among  the  most  familiar  and 
most  annoying  of  the  insects  injurious  to  plants. 
The  family  includes  many  species,  all  of  which 
are  small,  the  largest  measuring  only  one-fourth 
inch  in  length.  Most  of  those  we  see  are  wing- 
less, but  some  of  the  common  species  have  two 
pairs  of  transparent  wings.  Our  most  common 
species  of  plant-lice  are  green  or  black,  but 
others  are  red,  brown,  or  yellow.  The  beak  is 
three-jointed.  It  is  not  coiled  up  like  that  of 
the  butterfly,  but  is  attached  to  the  head  by  a 
hinge,  and  is  bent  up  against  the  under  side  of 
the  body  when  the  insect  is  not  feeding.  They 
feed  upon  the  buds,  leaves,  and  tender  growing 
stems  or  roots  of  plants,  and  in  such  immense 
numbers  as  to  often  do  much  damage. 

ExERCiSK  15. — It  will  be  easy  to  find  colonies  of  these 
plant-lice  upon  crysanthemums,  cherry,  or  plum  sprouts, 
or  even  rc^adside  weeds. 

{a)  Watch  them  closely,  taking  care  not  to  dis- 
turb them.  What  other  insects  do  you  see  among 
them  ?     Do  you  find  two  tiny  tubes  projecting  from  the 


324  AGRICULTURE. 

terminal  segment  of  the  abdomen  of  the  plant-louse  ? 
Is  there  a  drop  of  honeydew  on  tiie  tops  of  these  tubes  ? 
What  do  you  find  ants  doing  vvitli  this  honeydew  ?  If 
no  honeydew  is  present,  observe  the  ants  stroke  these 
plant-lice  with  their  antennae.  Do  they  then  obtain  the 
honeydew  (Fig.  115)?  This  process  is  commonly  spoken 
of  as  the  "ants  milking  their  cows."  Bees  and  wasps 
also  like  this  honeydew. 

Ants  care  for  the  plant-lice  in  many  ways,  protecting 
their  eggs  and  carrying  the  lice  to  the  roots,  upon  which 
they  feed. 

(d)  Do  you  find  any  enemies  in  the  colony? 

(c)  Kerosene  emulsion  is,  perhaps,  the  best  remedy. 
Why? 

(d)  Will  the  Paris  green  spray  kill  them  ?     Explain. 

2.  T/ie  Rose-slug  [Monoslegia  roses)  is  a  soft- 
bodied  larva,  green  above  and  yellowish  below, 
which  eats  the  surface  of  the  rose  leaves,  leaving 
only  the  framework.  When  full  grown  the 
larva  buries  in  the  ground.  The  adult  is  a  tiny 
black  fly  with  dull-colored  wings,  and  with  the 
first  and  second  pair  of  legs  grayish.  There  are 
two  broods  a  year  (one  in  early  summer  and  one 
in  late  summer),  the  second  brood  pupating  in 
the  ground  over  winter,  and  the  adult  emerg- 
ing in  the  spring.  Either  Paris  green  or  kero- 
sene emulsion  will  form  an  effective  remedy. 
Why? 

3.  Tent-caterpillar.  —  There  are  several 
species  of  tent-caterpillars  ;  but  only  two,  the 
apple  tent-caterpillar  i^Clisiocanipa  aiucricana), 
and     the    forest     tent-caterpillar    {^Clisiocafnpa 


ENEMIES   OF   PLANTS. 


325 


disstria)  are  common  in  the  United  States  east 
of  the  Rockies.  The  adult  form  of  the  C. 
americana  is  a  rather  small,  rusty  brown  moth, 
with  oblique,  pale  yellow  lines  across  the  four 
wings  (Fig.  1 16). 

The  eggs  are  laid   in  summer  in  a    circular 


KIG.    115. 


-ANTS    MII.KINC    I'l.ANT-I.ICK 
(After  Figuir.) 


band  about  a  twig.  This  band  of  eggs  (Fig. 
116,  c)  is  protected  from  the  weather  by  a  sticky 
substance  with  which  the  parent  moth  coats 
them  over.  The  following  spring,  just  before 
leaf   buds    open,    these    tiny   caterpillars    come 


326 


AGRICULTURE. 


forth  to  feed  upon 
the  buds,  and  soon 
the  colony,  for 
they  arc  social 
beings,  spins  a 
silken  web,  or 
"  tent,"  on  the 
fork  of  a  branch 
(Fig.  1 16,  a  to  b), 
to  which  the  cater- 
pillars retire  at 
night  and  in  cold 
and  stormy  weath- 
er. They  grow 
rapidly,  and  greed- 
ily d  evo  u  r  the 
leaves  as  they 
come  out,  doing 
much  damage. 

When    the    cat- 
erpillars are  grown 

a  and  *— Kull-growu  worms  on  tlie  outside  of  fheV  are  aboUttVVO 
the  tent.     c—Kgg-niass,  with  the  guniiuy  cover- 
ing removed.  </— Cocoon,  containing  the  chrys-  inclieS       lOUiT        aud 
alis.     Above  all,  the  moth.  ,        .... 

{.\fter  Riley.)  coveredwith  hairy 

*  Our  Western   sjiecies  (Clisiocampa  frag^ilis)  K  ,-  J  o  f  1  /.  t-  'PV»<3\7- 

resembles  the  alxjve  .so  closely  that  the  figure    OriSLlCS.        1  ne^ 
.serves  e<iuallv  well  for  it.  111-1 

are  black  with  a 
white  stripe  down  the  median  line,  and  with 
short  yellow  lines  and  pale  blue  spots  on  each 
side  (Fig.  ii6,  a  and  /;).  When  they  have 
reached  their  growth  they  leave  the  tree,  seek 


FK;.    116. — AMERICAN    TENT-CATKK  IML- 
I.AK   (Clisiocatnpa  aiiifri'catia).'^ 


ENEMIES   OF    PLANTS. 


327 


shelter  on  the  ground  under  boards,  bark,  etc., 
and  spin  a  silken  cocoon  (Fig.  ii6,  a),  from 
which,  after  a  few  weeks,  the  moth  emerges. 

The  apple  and  wild  cherry  are  the  trees  most 
usually  attacked  by  these  caterpillars,  but  they 


FIG.   117. 


-KALTIMORE    ORIOLE    ATTACKING     \'HK    NEST    OF    THE 
AMERICAN     lENT-CA  IKK  I'll, I.AR. 


have  been  found  upon  the  peach,  rose,  and  other 
members  of  this  family  of  plants,  as  well  as  upon 
forest  and  shade  trees. 

Bacteria  and  parasitic  ichneumon-flies,  as  well 
as  many  birds,  such  as  cuckoos,  blue  jays,  crows, 


328 


AGRICULTURE. 


and  orioles  (Fig.  117),  serve  as  natural  checks 
to  these  insects,  but  they  are  by  no  means 
sufficient  to  prevent  them  from  doing  great 
damage. 

Every  farmer  should  take  prompt  measures 
to  destroy  them  at  their  first  appearance  upon 

his  trees.  This  may 
be  done  effectively 
by  spraying  the  foli- 
age with  arsenate  of 
lead,  or  Paris  green, 
or  by  collecting  them 
in  their  tents  early  in 
the  morning  or  late 
in  the  evening.  This, 
maybe  done  by  thrust-, 
ing  into  the  tent  the 
end  of  a  long  pole, 
into  which  has  been 
driven  two  or  three 
nails,  and  turning  the 
pole  round  and  round 
so  as  to  twist  the  web 
about  it.  The  cater- 
pillars should  then  be  burned  or  crushed. 

4.  The  Forest  Tent-caterpillar  (C.  disstria) 
is  very  like  the  American  tent-caterpillar  in 
appearance  and  habits.  The  markings  upon  the 
wings  of  this  moth  are  dark  instead  of  light,  while 
in  the  caterpillar  (Fig.  119)  the  median  line  is 


IlS. — FORKST    TENT-COCOONS 
IX    AI'l'I.K    I.EAVKS. 


ENEMIES   OF    PLANTS.  329 

marked  with  a  row  of  white  spots  instead  of  a 
continuous  line  of  white,  as  in  the  americana. 
In  the  colonies  or  masses  which  they   form 


FIG.  119. — FOREST  TENT-CATERPILLARS  FEEDING  Ul'ON  ELM  LEAVES. 

when  not  feeding  there  is  a  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct web  underneath  them,  but  it  does  not  form 
a  complete  covering  above  them,  as  in  the 
ainericana.     They  not  only  eat  away  consider- 


330 


AGRICULTURE. 


able  portion  of  the  leaf,  but  they  cut  it  in  two, 
so  that  the  end  falls  to  the  ground  ;  in  this  way 
the  damage  is  doubled  (Fig.  119).  To  this  is 
also  added  the  injury  done  to  the  foliage  by 
binding  up  the  leaves  (Fig.  118)  for  the  attach- 
ment and  the  protection  of  the  cocoon. 


FIG.   120. — CODLING-MOTH. 

a — Injured  apple. — d — Place  where  egg  is  laid. 

e — I.arva.     d — Pupa,      i — Cocoon      ^,  ./"^Moth. 

/i — Head  of  larva. 

(After  Riley.) 

They  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  the  foli- 
age, at  the  Jirs/  appearance  of  the  caterpillar, 
with  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green.  Both 
the  forest  and  the  apple  tent-caterpillars  often 
drop  to  the  ground,  and  they  may  be  prevented 
from  crawling  back  up  the  trunk  by  banding  the 
base  of  the  tree,  with  a  strip  of  cotton  or  of 
"tanglefoot"  tly-paper.      This  should  be  closely 


ENEMIES    OF    PLANTS.  331 

applied  to  the  trunk  about  a  foot  from  the 
ground,  allowing  the  caterpillars  to  collect  below 
the  band,  when  they  may  be  removed  and  de- 
stroyed, or  sprayed  copiously,  and,  if  need  be, 
repeatedly,  with  kerosene  emulsion. 

5.  The  Codliiig-viotk  (Fig.  120). — Comstock 
says:  "This  is  the  best-known  and  probably 
the  most  important  insect  enemy  of  the  fruit 
grower."  The  adult  is  a  tiny  gray  moth  (Fig. 
120,^).  Its  front  wings  are  sometimes  tinged 
with  pink.  These  wings  have  a  large  brown 
spot  near  the  edge,  crossed  by  metallic,  bronzy 
bands. 

The  eggs  are  laid  each  in  the  blossom  end  of 
an  apple,  just  as  the  petals  are  falling.  In  a  few 
days  the  larva  hatches,  feeds  a  little  upon  the 
surface  of  the  apple — for  a  few  hours  or  a  day — 
then  eats  its  way  into  the  center  of  the  apple, 
where  we  find  it  as  "a  little  white  worm." 

The  larvcC  may  be  destroyed  before  they  do 
any  damage  by  spraying  the  trees  with  Paris 
green  or  arsenate  of  lead,  J2ist  as  tJic  b/ossotns 
fall,  and  before  or  at  the  time  the  larvae  hatch. 
At  this  time  the  fruit  stands  with  blossom  end 
up,  and  the  poison  will  reach  the  place  where 
the  larva  hatches.  It  is  necessary  to  repeat  this 
spraying  in  a  few  days  or  a  week,  the  time  de- 
pending upon  whether  it  is  dry  or  rainy  weather. 
A  large  percentage  of  the  apples  which  drop  pre- 
maturely will   be  found  to  contain  these  larvae. 


332  AGRICULTURE. 

The  larva  remains  in  the  apple  only  a  short  time 
after  it  drops;  then  it  crawls  out  (Fig.  120,  e) 
and  seeks  some  secluded  place — as,  under  bark, 
boards,  etc.;  hence,  if  the  apples  are  removed  and 
burned, or  fed  to  hogs  at  once,  many  of  last  year's 
larvae  will  be  destroyed,  and  thus  the  number 
of  adults  left  over  for  spring  breeding  greatly 
lessened. 

6.  The  Borers  are  another  group  of  insect 
pests  which,  owing  to  their  habits  and  life  his- 
tory, must  be  combated  in  an  altogether  differ- 
ent manner. 

This  group  includes  the  many  species  of 
borers.  The  remedies  for  many  of  these  borers 
are  the  same,  but  the  time  and  methods  of  apply^ 
ing  them  depend  upon  the  habit  of  the  particu- 
lar species  in  question.  Each  is  a  study  in  it- 
self, and  one  must  know  something  of  the  habits 
and  life  history  of  each  particular  species  which 
he  \vould  successfully  combat.  On  account  of 
limited  space,  but  one  example  of  borers  can  be 
given. 

(i)  Example. — The  Round-headed  Apple- 
tree  Borer  {Saperda  Candida ). — The  presence 
of  these  borers  may  be  detected  by  the  sickly 
appearance  of  the  tree  and  by  the  sawdust  from 
their  gnawings,  which  is  pushed  out  of  their  tiny 
canals  (Fig.  122).  It  takes  nearly  three  years 
for  these  insects  to  complete  their  life-cycle. 

In  June  or  July  the  eggs  are  laid  singly  at  the 


ENEMIES    OK    PLANTS. 


333 


base  of  the  trunk,  under  a  loose  scale  of  the 
bark  or  in  a  little  incision  made  by  the  mandibles. 
In  about  two  weeks  the  larva  is  hatched,  and  at 
once  begins  to  gnaw  into  the  sapwood  and  inner 
bark,  where  it  remains  for  a  year,  making  "disc- 
shaped  mines,"  in   the  lower  part   of    which    it 


FIG.    121. — ROUND-HKAUEO   AI'PLE-BORER  {Saperda  Candida,  Vi\h.). 
(After  Division  of  Entomology,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

spends  the  winter.  The  following  summer  it 
again  works  in  the  sapwood,  and  in  the  third 
season  "  cuts  a  cylindrical  passage  upward  into 
the  solid  wood  "  (Fig.  122),  It  afterward  gnaws 
out  toward  the  bark,  sometimes  going  on  through 
the  tree.*  "  It  changes  to  a  pupa  (j^)  near  the 
upper  end  of  its  burrow  in  May,  and  emerges  as 
a  beetle  in  June." 

(2)     Preventives. — Nature    furnishes    many 


*  Comstock's  Manual  for  t/i<i  Sttidy  of  Insects,  p.  573. 


334 


AGRICULTURE. 


helpers  in  keeping  boring  insects  in  check — 
such  as  woodpeckers,  ichneumon-flies,  Chalcis 
flies,  etc.  In  combating  all  kinds  of  borers  an 
ounce  of  prevention  is,  indeed,  worth  more  than 
a  pound  of  cure.  Pro77ipt  removal  of  all  dead 
01'  dying  trees  is  a  necessary  measure.  The 
most  effective  preventive  is  to  wrap  the  base  of 


FIG.  122. — Sapcrda  cdiulida.  Tab. 

a — Puncture  in  which  egg  is  laid,     b — Same  in  section,    r— Hole  from  which 

beetle  has  emerged.    _/"— Same  in  section,    g — Pupa  in  its  cell. 

(After  Riley.) 

the  tree  trunk  for  about  a  foot  and  a  half  with 
wire  gauze  netting,  or,  what  is  cheaper,  wooden 
wrappers  obtained  from  box  and  basket  fac- 
tories. They  should  be  pushed  down  into  the 
ground  so  that  the  beetle  cannot  get  under  to 
lay  its  eggs,  and  the  tops  should  be  tightly  filled 
in  with  cotton  batting  to  keep  them  out.     The 


ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS.  336 

wooden  wrappers  also  protect  the  tree  from  sun- 
scald  and  from  rabbits. 

A  very  effective  remedy,  which  has  been 
tested  and  recommended  by  Prof.  J.  M.  Sted- 
man,  State  Entomologist  for  Missouri,  is  an 
alkali  wash  made  as  follows :  "  Dissolve  as 
much  common  washing  soda  as  possible  in  six 
gallons  of  water  ;  then  dissolve  one  gallon  of  or- 
dinary soft  soap  in  the  above,  and  add  one  pint 
of  crude  carbolic  acid  and  thoroughly  mix ; 
slake  a  quantity  of  lime  in  four  gallons  of  water, 
so  that  when  it  is  added  to  the  above  the  whole 
will  make  a  thick  whitewash  ;  add  this  to  the 
above  and  mix  thoroughly,  and  finally  add  one- 
half  pound  of  Paris  green  or  one-fourth  pound 
of  powdered  white  arsenic  and  mix  it  thoroughly 
in  the  above." 

This  wash,  of  course,  has  no  effect  upon  the 
larva  when  it  is  inside  of  the  bark,  but  it 
prevents  the  insect  from  laying  its  eggs  upon 
the  bark,  or  if'the  egg  is  already  present  it  kills 
the  larva  before  it  enters  the  tree.  As  much 
loose  bark  as  can  be  taken  away  without  injur- 
ing the  tree  should  be  removed,  and  every  crack 
and  crevice  filled  with  the  wash  by  rubbing 
hard  with  the  scrubbing-brush  in  applying  it. 
The  wash  should  be  applied  early  in  June  and 
again  early  in  July. 


336  AGRICULTURE. 

^.—INJURIOUS    FUNGI. 

The  enemies  of  plants  are  not  restricted  to 
animal  forms,  but  many  of  them  are  low  forms 
of  plants.  Parasitic  fungi,  or  low  forms  of 
plants  which  do  not  have  the  power  to  live  upon 
unorganized  food  as  green  plants  do,  feed  upon 
the  tissues  of  living  or  dead  animals  or  plants, 
and  often  do  a  great  mnount  of  damage.  The 
fungi,  which  feed  upon  living  plants  greatly 
concern  the  agriculturist.  Millions  of  dollars 
are  lost  yearly  by  the  damage  caused  by  para- 
sitic fungi. 

The  parts  of  the  fungus  are  the  mycelium 
(the  vegetative  threads  which  ramify  the  tissues 
of  the  host),  and  the  minute  spores,  or  repro- 
ductive organs,  the  function  of  which  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  seed  of  higher  plants. 

I.  Specific  Examples. 

Space  permits  only  the  brief  mention  of  a  few 
of  the  numerous  fungi,  but  it  is  hoped  that  this 
may  be  sufficient  to  give  the  student  a  slight 
idea  of  their  development  and  the  method  of 
combatinor  them. 

I.  Brown  Rot [MoJtilia  frnctigena)  (Fig.  123). 
— This  is  the  familiar  rot  of  the  plum,  peach, 
and  cherry,  first  appearing  as  a  small  dark  spot 
on  the  nearly  ripe  fruit.  The  ripe  spores  are 
easily  carried  by  the  wind,  and  frequently 
this  rot  destroys  the  entire  crop.  The  rot 
spreads  fast  if   the  weather  is  warm  and  moist. 


ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS.  337 

Those  fruits  which  touch  each  other  are  most 
easily  affected  ;  hence,  the  importance  of  thinning 
the  fruit.  Another  point  to  be  remembered  is 
the  fact  that  the  fruits  infested  by  these  fungi 


FIG.   123. — UROWN    Kor    {Moni7ia/i  tn/ij^riia). 

dry  up  and  remain  upon  the  tree,  and  thus  carry 
the  spores  over  to  the  next  year.  These  mum- 
mified fruits  (Fig.  123)  should  be  destroyed  or 
fed  to  hogs.      Frequent  spraying  with  the  dihitcci 


338 


AGRICULTURE. 


Bordeaux  *  mixture  (see  page  341)  will  be  an  ef- 
fective prevention  if  done  in  time. 

2.  Black  Rot  i^Lcestadia  bidiuellii)  of  the 
grape  (Fig.  124)  is  a  fungous  growth  which  at- 
tacks nearly  or 
quite  grown  grapes, 
beginning  as  a  dark 
spot  which  spreads 
over  the  whole 
grape,  making  it  a 
purplish  brown 
color.  The  grape 
then  shrivels,  turns 
black,  and  is  cov- 
ered with  very  mi- 
nute elevations. 

Just  before  the 
fruit  ripens,  or 
earlier  if  the 
weather  is  warm 
and  moist,  this  fun- 
gous growth  is  apt 
to  appear,  and  prompt  and  frequent  spraying 
should  be  resorted  to.  Bordeaux  mixture  is 
recommended  for  earlier  spraying  ;  but  it 
stains  the  fruit,  thus  injuring  its  appearance, 
when  it  begins  to  ripen.    The  ammoniacal  copper 


FIG.    124. — BLACK   ROT 
{LAjesladia  bidwellii). 


*  "  Since  the  leaves  of  the  peach  and  plum  are  sensitive  to  this 
spraying  mixture,  it  should  be  used  only  in  extreme  cases." — 
Wilcox. 


ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS. 


339 


carbonate  solution  should  then  be  substituted 
for  the  Bordeaux  mixture.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  burn  the  mummified  fruits  (Fig.  124). 

3.    The  Bitter  Rot  of    apples   {Glceospo7Hum 
fructigenum). — This    is    sometimes    called    the 


Ycar-txiok,  1899. 

FIG.     125. GRArES     FROM    VINEYARD    AFFECTED    WITH    BLACK    ROT. 

Sprayed  and  unsprayed. 

ripe  rot  of  apples,  as  it  seldom  affects  the  fruit 
until  half  or  nearly  grown,  and  often  effects  it 
even  after  it  is  stored."'  It  first  appears  as  small 
brown  spots  which  enlarge,  and  sometimes  two 
or  more  unite,  so  that  soon  the  whole  fruit  is 
rotted.      The  fruits  may  drop  off,  but  often   re- 

*  Unless  in  cold  storage. 


340 


AGRICULTURE. 


main  upon  the  tree  and  dry  up,  thus  protecting 
the  spores  to  start  an  extensive  crop  the  suc- 
ceeding year. 

Every  rotten  apple,  whether  on  the  ground 
or  on  the  tree,  should  be  destroyed,  and  all  can- 
ker spots  on  the  branches  or  trunk  cut  out. 
Spraying  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  should 
be   begun    the    middle    of   July,    and    repeated 


KIG.   126. — AN   Al'PLE   ATTACKED   BY   BITTKR-ROT   FUNGUS. 
(After  Alwood.) 

twice  a  month  or  oftener.  Substitute  for 
the  Bordeaux  mixture,  as  the  apple  reaches 
its  growth,  the  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate 
solution. 

4.  Apple  Scab  {^Fusicladiuni  dentriticuni). 
— This  common  and  very  injurious  fungus  at- 
tacks both  foliage  and  fruit.  It  is  found  on  the 
leaves  as  "sooty"  spots.  The  leaves  become 
yellow  and    fall.      It   appears  on   the    fruit  as  a 


ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS. 


341 


brownish  scab,  often  distorting  the  shape.  It 
does  the  most  damage  just  at  the  time  of  blos- 
soming, and  the  forming  apples  drop  off.  It 
may  be  largely  prevented  by  spraying  with  Bor- 


FIG.I27. — APPLE    SCAB. 
(After  I^adeiiian  ) 

deaux  mixture  several  times  in  the  spring  just 
before  the  blossoms  open,  and  afterward  at 
intervals  of  two  weeks. 

Let  students  spray  an  apple-tree  for  Apple  Scab  and 
codling  moth  by  combining  Paris  green  (one-quarter 
pound   to  50  gallons  of  water)  and  Bordeaux  mixture.* 

II.  Fungicides.f 

(i)  The  best  spray  for  general  use  as  a  fungi- 
cide is,  without  doubt,  the  Bordeaux  viixture. 

FORMULA    FOR    LIQUID    BORDEAUX. 

Copper  sulphate .  .  .   3  to  6  pounds 

Quicklime 3  to  6  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

*See  Bulletin  114,  Illinois  Experiment  Station. 

f  For  Mildew  on  roses,  etc.,  Flowers  of  Sulphur  mixed  with 
one-third  of  its  volume  of  Slaked  Lime  dusted  on  the  foliage 
is  benefinia). 


342  AGRICULTURE. 

The  amount  of  copper  sulphate  used  depends 
upon  the  strength  of  the  mixture  desired,  three 
pounds  being  sufficient  for  peach-trees  in  foliage, 
and  six  pounds  being  harmless  to  dormant  trees. 
Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  in  an  earthen  jar 
or  wooden  pail  by  suspending  it  in  a  sack  so 
that  it  will  just  touch  the  water.  Hot  or  cold 
water  may  be  used.  Slake  the  lime,  and  after 
it  is  done  slaking  add  water  enough  to  make  a 
thin  paste  ;  strain,  this  through  a  gunny-sack 
Into  a  vessel  containing  twenty-five  gallons  of 
water,  and  stir  thoroughly.  ]\Iix  together  the 
lime  and  copper  sulphate  solutions  in  equal 
parts. 

It  is  well  to  add  a  little  of  one  of  the  arsenical 
sprays,  since  by  so  doing  one  may  kill  both 
insects  and  fungi  at  the  same  time.  It  is  better 
to  use  the  Bordeaux  mixture  when  fresh.  It 
should  be  applied  in  dry  weather,  if  possible. 

Bordeaux  solution  containing  free  copper 
sulphate  is  injurious  to  foliage  and  blossoms,* 
It  should  akuays  be  tested  with  potassium  ferro- 
cyanide.f 

Directions  for  testing  : 

(a)  In  a  test  tube  or  bottle  make  a  Bordeaux  solution 
witii  an  excess  of  lime  and  add  a  few  drops  of  potas- 
sium ferrocyanide.      Xole  change. 


*  See  Bulletin  287,  New  York  Experiment  Station. 
■{•Potassium     ferrocyanide    is    very   poisonous.        Handle   with 
care.     Label  "Poison." 


ENEMIES   OF    PLANTS.  343 

{i>)  Prepare  a  Bordeaux  solution  with  an  excess  of  cop- 
per sulphate,  and  add  a  few  drops  of  potassium  ferro- 
cyanide.     Note  change. 

(c)  Add  potassium  ferrocyanide  to  lime-water  See 
p.  ID  (</).  Note  change.  How  does  the  result  compare 
with  (a)? 

(a)  Add  potassium  ferrocyanide  to  a  solution  of  cop- 
per sulphate.  Note  change.  How  does  the  result  com- 
pare with  (d)? 

Potassium  ferrocyanide  and  copper  sulphate 
form  a  dark  brown  precipitate.  If  the  Bor- 
deaux solution  shows  a  brownish  color  when 
potassium  ferrocyanide  is  added,  what  does  it 
indicate  ?  What  would  you  do  with  the  Bor- 
deaux solution  ? 

2.  T/ie  Ammoniacal  Copper  Carbonate  Sohi- 
tion. — When  the  fruit  is  almost  ready  for  mar- 
ket it  is  advisable  to  use  the  ammoniacal  copper 
carbonate  solution,  as  the  Bordeaux  mixture 
stains  the  fruit  and  mars  its  appearance. 

FORMTLA 

Copper  carbonate 5  ounces 

Strong  ammonia 3  pints 

Water 50  gallons 

Add  enough  water  to  the  copper  carbonate  to 
make  a  thin  paste  ;  then  pour  into  it  the  ammonia 
and  mix  thoroughly  ;  then  add  the  water.  Use 
instead  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  whenever  it  is 
desired  to  avoid  the  stain  made  by  the  Bor- 
deaux. 


344  AGRICULTURE. 

C— REFERENCES. 

"  Injurious  Fruit  Insects."  Bulletin  23,  Montana  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

"  Diseases  of  Cultivated  Plants."  Bulletin  121,  Ohio  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station. 

"  The  Chinch  Bug."  Bulletin  51,  Missouri  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station. 

"Spraying  Apple-trees,  with  Special  Reference  to  Apple  Scab 
Fungus."     Bulletin  54,  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"  Forest  Tent-caterpillar."  Bulletins  64,  75,  New  Hampshire 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"  Tent-caterpillar."  Bulletin  38,  New  Hampshire  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

"  The  Army-worm."  Bulletin  39,  New  Hampshire  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station. 

"  Insecticides  and  Fungicides.''  Bulletin  75,  Oregon  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station. 

"  The  Canker-worm."  Bulletin  44,  New  Hampshire  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station, 

"  Paris  Green  for  the  Codling-moth."  Bulletin  126,  California 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"  Fruit  Diseases,  and  How  to  Treat  Them."  Bulletin  66, 
West  Vireinia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"  Common  Diseases  and  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits."  Bulletin 
170,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"The  Common  Crow."  Bulletin  6,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entomology. 

"The  Relation  of  Sparrows  to  Agriculture."  Bulletin  15, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, Division  of  Entomology. 

"  Peach  Twig  Borer."  Farmers'  Bulletin  So,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

"  The  Bitter  Rot  of  Apples."  Bulletin  44,  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"  Fall  Army-worm  and  Variegated  Cutworm."  Bulletin  29, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entom- 
ology. 

"  Progressive  Economic  Entomology."     Year-book,  1S99. 

"The  Blue  Jay  and  Its  Food."     Year-book,  1S96. 

"  Danger  of  Importing  Insect  Pests."     Year-book,  1S97. 

"The  Shade-tree  Insect  Problem  in  the  Eastern  United 
States."     Year-book,  1S95. 


ENEMIES    OF    PLANTS.  345 

"  The  Principal  Insect  Enemies  of  the  Grape."  Year-book, 
1895. 

"  Four  Common  Birds  of  the  Farm."     Year-book,  1895. 

"The  Meadow-lark  and   Baltimore  Oriole."     Year-book,  1895. 

'•  Birds  as  Weed  Destroyers."     Year-book,  1898. 

"  Fungus  Diseases  of  Forest  Trees."     Year-book,  1900. 

"  How  Birds  Affect  the  Orchard."     Year-book,  1900. 

"Useful  Birds  and  Harmful  Birds."     Year-book.  1897. 

"  Audubon  Societies  in  Relation  to  the  Farmer."  Year-book, 
1902. 

"  Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects."     Comstock.     2. 

"  Our  Insect  Friends  and  Foes."     Craigin.     3. 

"  Fungi  and  Fungicides."     Weed.     4. 

"  Bird  Life."     Chapman,      i. 

"  Our  Friends,  the  Birds."     Parker.     5. 

"  Economic  Entomology."     Smith.     6. 

"  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits."     Saunders.     6. 

"  Syrphus-flies."     Bulletin  No.  31,  U.  S.  National  Museum. 


OUTLINE    OF    CHAPTER    XIII. 

ORNAMENTATION  OF  SCHOOL  AND  HOME  GROUNDS 

^.-SCHOOL  GARDENING. 

I.  School-£(rounds. 

1 .  Trees. 

2.  Shrubbery. 

II.  Experimental  Garden. 

1.  Preparation. 

(i)  Study  on  Soil  and  Seed. 
(2)  Preparation  of  Ground. 

2.  Plantings. 

3.    Group  Gardens. 

III.  Window-garden. 

^.— LANDSCAPE-GARDKNING. 

I.  Geometrical  Style. 

II.  Natural  Style. 

u— REFERENCES. 


34/ 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

ORNAMENTATION  OF  SCHOOL  AND  HOME   GROUNDS. 

^.—SCHOOL  GARDENING.  ' 

I.  School-g^rounds. 

Tljese  present  a  difficult  problem.  A  play- 
ground must  and  will  be  had  by  the  children. 
Very  often  this  is  too  small  to  spare  a  foot  for 
ornamental  purposes,  but  nooks  and  corners 
may  be  used. 

1.  Trees. — If  there  is  any  possible  way,  let 
there  be  a  few  large  shade-trees.  It  would  ren- 
der the  school-room  more  comfortable,  as  well 
as  more  inviting,  to  have  a  tree  so  placed  as  to 
shade  the  windows  upon  the  south  or  west  side. 
Surely  young  trees  can  be  planted  on  the  edge 
of  the  street  along  the  school-ground,  and  prop- 
erly protected  until  a  good  root-system  is  estab- 
lished. 

2.  Shrubbery. — Instead  of  a  high  board  fence, 
clumps  of  shrubbery  may  be  used.  They  can 
easily  be  arranged  so  as  to  form  a  screen,  as 
well  as  to  make  a  pretty  background  for  the 
schoolhouse. 

One  excursion  to  the  woods  will  be  sufficient 
to  secure  abundant  material  for  the  year. 
Many  of  the  pupils  will  gladly  bring  a  flowering 

349 


^K^^^*Sl%'^ 


Pg^Ji;,"...-.....    ■  Jii 


FIG.    129. — A    COUNTRY    SCHOOI.-YARD — BARE   AND    UNATTRACTIVE. 


FIG.    130. — TJIK    SAMK    SCHOOI.-YARD  IMrROVED    BY    ri.ANTINGS 
OK    SIIRt'BBKKV. 

It  \vo>il<l  look  still  better  witho\it  the  fence.     (Bulletin,  Cornell  College 
of  Agriculture.) 

350 


SCHOOL  AND  HOME  GROUNDS.  351. 

shrub  from  the  home  grounds  if  the  teacher 
will  only  interest  them  in  this  work,  and  then 
use  taste  in  arranging  the  material  when  it  is 
brought. 

11.  Experimental  Garden. 

If  the  school-grounds  are  ample,  a  little  ex- 
perimental garden  laid  out  in  the  back  yard  will 
be  well  cared  for  by  the  children  if  enthusiasm 
has  been  rightly  instilled  and  controlled  by  the 
teacher. 

If  the  grounds  are  not  large  enough  to  admit 
of  this,  the  teacJicr  is  urged  to  secitre  a  vacant 
*  lot  for  this  experimental  garden.  No  doubt  it 
can  often  be  obtained  for  a  small  rental,  or,  per- 
haps, for  a  share  of  the  products.  If  agriculture 
is  to  be  studied,  and  it  ought  to  be  in  some  part 
of  the  course  of  study  in  every  school,  then  the 
experimental  garden  becomes  a  necessity. 

The  school  garden  should  have  the  hearty 
support  of  the  children  concerned  ;  without  this 
it  will  be  a  failure.  A  child  that  has  to  be 
forced  to  take  up  this  work  would  far  better  be 
excused — for  the  first  year,  at  least.  There  will 
be  time  enough  for  him  to  repent  when  he  sees 
his  playmates  with  fine  flowers  and  vegetables 
of  their  own.  To  gain  the  hearty  support  of 
the  children  requires  only  an  enthusiastic 
teacher — one  who  believes  in  his  work,  and  has 
a  definite,  organized  course  of  procedure. 

I.  Preparation.      (i)    Study    on    the    Soil 


352  AGRICULTURE. 

AND  THE  Seed. — About  a  month  or  six  weeks 
prior  to  the  work  in  the  open  ground,  prepara- 
tory lessons  should  be  given  on  the  soil  and  on 
seed  germination.  These  should  include:  (a)  A 
comparative  study  of  the  different  types  of  soils 
(sand,  clay,  humus,  and  loam),  as  to  their  color, 
weight,  porosity,  size  of  particles,  and  power  to 
absorb  and  retain  heat.  (<5)  A  study  of  the 
seed  and  the  conditions  governing  germination. 
Some  of  the  principal  points  to  be  considered  in 
these  lessons  are  purity  and  vitality  of  seeds, 
the  seed-coat,  depth  of  planting,  time  of  sprout- 
ing, and  effect  of  light,  air,  moisture,  and  heat 
on  germination  (see  Chapter  IX.). 

Samples  of  all  the  different  seeds  to  be 
planted  in  the  garden  should  be  carefully  ex- 
amined and  tested  for  purity  and  vitality,  dis- 
carding all  those  that  are  impure  or  are  slow  to 
germinate.  For  early  planting,  seeds  of  such 
plants  as  the  tomato,  cabbage,  and  pansy  should 
be  started  indoors.  In  every  case  the  child 
should  work  out  these  results  for  himself  by 
actual  experiments  or  observations.  If  well 
done,  this  work  will  form  an  excellent  basis  for 
the  work  in  the  outdoor  garden. 
^  (2)  Preparation  of  Ground. — The  soil  for 
this  garden  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  by 
plowing  and  harrowing,  independent  of  the 
children's  work.  A  certain  space  of  ground 
should    be    planned  for  and    assigned    to  each 


SCHOOL  AND  HOME  GROUNDS.  353 

child.  As  a  7ninimu7n  this  should  be  4X  10  feet, 
with  a  path  a  foot  and  a  half  or  two  feet  wide 
on  each  side.  The  measuring  should  be  done 
by  the  children,  but  it  will  be  necessary  to 
measure  very  accurately,  in  order  that  each 
child  may  get  his  rightful  share  of  the  ground 
and  that  this  drill  may  be  practical.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  tramp  the  ground  any  more  than 
is  absolutely  necessary.  As  the  plats  are  laid 
off,  they  should  be  marked  with  a  stake  at  each 
corner.  The  paths  should  be  determined  as 
soon  as  possible,  and  the  passing'  over  the 
grou7ids  restricted  to  these.  All  paths  should 
be  kept  mulched  with  grass  or  garden  debris. 

Each  child  should  have  full  charge  of  his  in- 
dividual garden  throughout  the  term,  and  be 
responsible  for  the  general  condition  of  the 
garden  and  path. 

Great  care  must  be  exercised  by  the  teacher,  lest  making  the 
garden  should  become  the  sole  aim  instead  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  child.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  latter  is 
the  paramount  purpose  of  all  school  work.  Hence,  the 
teiicher  should  first  require  careful  thought  concerning 
the  prospective  garden;  then  the  individual  tastes  of  the 
children  should  be  consulted  in  selecting  and  arranging 
their  own  plantings. 

Now,  havincr  decided  how  and  where  each 
variety  is  to  be  planted,  the  ground  should  be 
well  pulverized  and  marked  off  by  the  children. 


354 


AGRICULTURE. 


If  rows  are  used  they  should  be  from  one  to 
three  feet  apart,  according  to  the  character  of 
the  plantings. 

2.  Plantings  for  Individual   Gardens. — The 
first   planting  may  consist  of  radishes,  lettuce, 


FIG.    131. — FIFTH-GRADE    CHILDREN    PLANTING    THEIR    GARDEN 

and  onions.  These  may  occupy  two-thirds  of 
the  ground.  The  remaining  portion  should  be 
used  for  growing  flowers  ;  some  rather  low 
flowering  plants  are  preferable,  such  as  Cali- 
fornia poppies,  dwarf  nasturtiums,  verbenas, 
phlox,  and  Ageratum.  As  the  first  planting  of 
vegetables    is    removed,    a    few    tomato-plants. 


SCHOOL  AND  HOME  GROUNDS. 


355 


cabbage-plants,    potato     hills,    or    some    dwarf 
beans  may  be  put  in. 

The  experimental  garden  makes  possible  many 
lessons  in  nature.  From  the  plants  here  grown 
the  child  may  gain  an  idea  of  the  entire  life  his- 
tory of  them  :  seeds,  roots,  stems,  leaves,  flowers, 


Fig.    132. — FOURTH-GRADE    CUILUKKN    CARING    FOR    THE    LAWN 
AROUND   THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN. 

and  fruit  may  be  studied.  Ample  opportunity 
will  be  had  for  the  study  of  "  our  friends,  the 
birds,"  and  of  our  insect  friends  and  foes. 

The  children  should  compare  their  gardens 
with  those  of  their  neighbors,  and  be  led  to  see 
their  mistakes,  and,  if  possible,  the  reason  for 
them,  so  they  may  obtain  better  results  next 
time.  Thus,  while  training  the  powers  of  ob- 
servation and  comparison  (and  deductive  reason- 
ing in  the  case  of  older  students),  the  children 


356  AGRICULTURE. 

will  be  also  learning  practical  lessons  in  growing 
plants  to  supply  them  with  food  or  to  adorn 
their  homes,  thereby  elevating  their  tastes  and 
enriching  their  lives. 

3.  Group  Gardens. — The  local  conditions  in 
the  school  will  determine  whether  individual 
gardens  or  group  gardens  are  the  more  practi- 
cable. If  the  children  can  have  individual 
gardens  at  home  *  then  the  group  garden  is  the 
more  valuable  for  the  school,  since  most 
phases  of  the  work  can  be  better  demonstrated 
by  having  the  children  work  together. 

If  the  preparatory  work  (see  i.  Preparation. 
pp.  353,  354),  has  been  carefully  done  with  the 
children  in  the  class-room,  and  the  plans  dis- 
cussed concerning  what,  how  and  where  to 
plant,  the  children  will  be  eager  to  carry  their 
plans  into  effect  in  the  group  garden. 

CONCRETE    EXAMPLES    OF    GROUP    GARDENS. 

(rt;)  Primary  Gardens. — Late  in  the  fall  each 
of  the  lower  grades  of  the  Practice  School 
planted  one  kind  of  bulbs.  The  first  grade 
chose  the  tulip  ;  the  second  grade,  the  poet's 
narcissus  ;  the  third  grade,  the  crocus  ;  and  the 
fourth  grade,  the  daffodil.      In  early  spring  they 

*There  should  be  frequent  "experience  meetings"  with  the 
children  concerning  their  home  gardens. 

If  it  can  be  arranged  so  that  the  class  and  teacher,  or  at  least 
the  teacher,  can  visit  some  of  the  home  gardens,  it  will  add  mu-^M 
to  the  interest  of  the  work. 


SCHOOL  AND  HOME  GROUNDS.        357 

removed  a  part  of  the  covering  and  watched 
with  delight  the  growth  and  blossoming  of  their 
bulbs.  As  soon  as  the  ground  was  ready  in  the 
spring  they  planted  pansies,  sweet-peas,  and 
early  vegetables,  such  as  onions,  radishes  and 
lettuce.  As  these  early  plants  matured  they 
replaced  them  with  later-growing  varieties,  thus 
obtaining  a  succession  of  crops  and  learning  the 
importance  of  utilizing  space. 

(d)  Fifth  Grade  Garden. — The  fifth  grade 
children  had  a  space  17^  x  70  feet  for  their 
oToiip  garden.  In  it  they  planted  rhubarb 
plants,  strawberry  plants,  and  raspberry  rooted- 
tips.  Many  kinds  of  nuts  were  also  planted. 
These  they  had  stratified  in  the  early  winter. 
The  opening  of  the  box  of  stratified  nuts  was 
like  the  opening  of  a  Christmas  box,  the  children 
were  so  eager  to  see  the  sprouts  of  the  different 
nuts.  After  planting  them  in  the  garden  they 
anxiously  watched  for  the  seedlings  to  come  up. 
Apple  grafts  were  also  put  out,  each  child's 
trees  being  kept  separate.  Cabbage  plants  and 
tomato  plants  which  were  grown  by  the  children 
indoors  were  set  out.  Some  tomato  plants 
were  trained  to  stakes,  some  supported  on  a 
frame,  and  others  left  prostrate  on  the  ground, 
thus  affording  an  opportunity  for  comparing  the 
relative  values  of  these  methods.  Potatoes, 
peas,  sweet-corn  and  pop-corn  were  also  given 
space. 


368 


AGRICULTURE. 


FIG.  134. — SCHOOL  GARDENING — AGKICL  LTLKAL  STUDENTS. 

A  portion  of  the  ground  was  reserved  for  a 
flower  garden.  In  this  they  practiced  some  of 
the  elementary  principles  of  landscape-garden- 
ing.     Plants  were  arranged  for  irregular  masses. 


SCHOOL   AND    HOME   GROUNDS.  359 

The  taller-growing  plants,  as  cosmos,  golden- 
glow,  and  dahlias,  were  placed  in  the  back- 
ground ;  in  the  middle  ground,  perennial  phlox, 
nasturtiums,  and  cannas  ;  and  in  the  foreground, 
California  poppies  and  sweet  alyssum  were 
planted.  Throughout  the  entire  scheme  con- 
sideration was  given  to  the  massing  of  colors 
that  would  harmonize.  Much  of  the  material 
for  this  work  was  obtained  from  the  General 
School  Garden  of  the  Normal  School. 

III.  The  Window-garden. 

Window-boxes  of  growing  plants  will  add  to 
the  attractiveness  of  the  school-room.  The 
difficulty  lies  in  the  danger  of  freezing  the  plants 
in  winter  nights;  but  even  if  this  cannot  be  pre- 
vented, there  are  three  months  in  the  spring 
and  two  or  three  in  autumn  when  the  plants 
may  be  had,  and  much  can  be  done  in  inter- 
esting the  pupils  in  this  time. 

The  window-box  should  be  made  of  inch  lum- 
ber, about  seven  inches  deep  and  the  width  and 
the  length  of  the  window-sill.  A  strip  of  oil- 
cloth should  be  put  upon  the  window-sill,  and 
the  box  supported  by  blocks  or  other  means,  so 
that  the  air  may  pass  freely  beneath  it,  thus 
preventing  the  decay  of  the  window-sill  or  fac- 
ing. It  is  important  that  the  soil  be  well  pre- 
pared by  thoroughly  mixing  decayed  leaf-mould, 
garden  soil,  and  sand. 


360 


AGRICULTURE. 


The  plants  must  be  studied  carefully  to  find 
out  which  love  the  sunshine  and  which  the 
shade,  and  which  the  partial  shade,  or,  in  other 
words,  which  can  be   grown  in   the  south   and 


FIG.    135.  —  ROMAN    HYACINTHS. 


which  in  a  north  window,  and  which  in  an  east 
window.  Try  some  of  the  same  kinds  in  each 
window  and  record  your  results.  Try  ferns  of 
various  kinds,  and  l)egonias,  umbrella-plants, 
and  Maderia-vines  in  the  north  window ;  prim- 
roses, cyclamen,  and  bulbs  in  an  east  window. 
If  they  can  be  kept  from  freezing    through 


SCHOOL  AND   HOME  GROUNDS. 


:i6i 


the  winter,  nothing  will  prove  more  satisfactory 
than  a  box  of  bulbs.'-'  Crocuses,  hyacinths  (Fig. 
135),  freesias,  and  narcissus  will  require  little 
attention  and  give 
good  results.  The 
Chinese  sacred  lily 
(Fig.  136)  is  a  large 
and  beautiful  nar- 
cissus, a  large  bulb 
of  which,  if  simply 
placed  upon  sand 
and  pebbles  in  a 
deep  dish  of  water, 
will  bloom  in  a  few 
weeks,  and  con- 
tinue to  bloom  for 
some  time. 


FIG.     136. — CHINESE    SACRED    LILY. 
HoUv  fern  in  front. 


^.—LANDSCAPE-GARDENING. 

Landscape-gardening  is  an  art,  just  as  truly 
as  the  painting  of  pictures  and  the  modeling  of 
sculpture ;  and  where  means  will  permit,  it  is 
just  as  essential  to  have  an  artist — one  whose 
artistic    tastes  and    ability  to   interpret   Nature 


*  Bulbs  for  winter  forcing  may  be  put  into  pots  of  good  loose 
soil  early  in  October,  and  stored  in  the  cellar  or  in  the  ground 
with  a  good  cover  of  straw,  soil,  and  compost,  and  allowed  to 
remain  until  about  six  weeks  before  the  blossoms  are  desired. 
Bring  them,  a  few  at  a  time,  into  partial  light  and  later  into  full 
light,  and  you  may  have  a  succession  of  blooms  for  weeks. 


362  AGRICULTURE. 

give  him  the  right  to  the  title  of  "  Landscape- 
gardener  " — to  design  the  grounds,  choosing  a 
site  for  and  suggesting  the  form  of  the  house, 
laying  out  the  roads  and  walks,  and  planning 
the  planting  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers,  so  as 
to  make  one  harmonious  picture,  as  it  is  to  have 
an  architect  to  design  the  buildings  and  plan 
the  rooms  for  the  convenience  and  comfort  of 
the  occupants. 

Few  of  us  can  afford  the  services  of  landscape- 
gardeners,  and  fewer  still  are  ourselves  real  art- 
ists. What  then?  Shall  our  homes  be  simply 
shelters  from  the  winter's  wind  and  summer's 
sun?  Mere  houses,  where  we  eat  and  sleep  and 
exist  ?  Or  shall  they  be,  so  far  as  it  lies  in  our 
power  to  make  them,  abiding-places  of  comfort 
and  joy  and  beauty  ;  places  where  the  eye  of  the 
weary  mother,  as  she  glances  up  from  her  work, 
may  meet  the  restful  view  of  shrub  and  tree  and 
sky,  all  blended  into  one  delightful  picture ; 
where  the  passer-by  may  receive  refreshing 
glimpses  of  cooling  shade  and  vistas  of  beauty 
half-hidden  by  the  trees  or  clumps  of  shrubbery, 
or  catch  sight  of  the  gay  colors  of  summer  flow- 
ers or  glorious  tints  of  autumn  leaves— dwelling- 
places  which  elevate  and  enrich  our  lives?  If 
this  latter  condition  is  to  be  obtained,  then  the 
finished  landscape  must  first  exist  in  the  mind — 
i.e.,  be  seen  in  the  imagination  of  the  designer, 
just  as  the  finished  picture  must  be  seen  by  the 


SCHOOL   AND    HOME   GROUNDS.  363 

painter  before  he  touches  his  brush  to  the 
canvas. 

The  Design. — In  the  design  the  landscape- 
garden  must  have  unity — some  one  dominating 
purpose  throughout  the  whole,  though  this 
purpose  need  not  be  manifest  to  the  observer. 

The  Grounds  must  be  seen  from  various 
standpoints ;  they  must  be  considered  as  viewed 
both  from  within  and  without — from  the  beauty 
of  their  winter  form  and  outline  as  well  as  of 
their  summer  verdure. 

In  the  site  of  the  house  and  in  the  grouping 
of  accessory  buildings  convenience  and  comfort 
must  be  first  regarded,  but  not  alone;  for  often 
a  beautiful  and  delightful  location  anight  have 
been  selected  which  would  have  been  just  as  con- 
venient and  healthful  as  the  dull  or  matter-of- 
fact  one  which  was  selected,  and  which  no 
amount  of  time  and  money  could  ever  make  the 
equal  of  the  other. 

Hence,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  a 
careful  study  of  the  natuj^al  i^esotirces  should  be 
made.  There  is  no  spot,  whether  among  moun- 
tains or  at  the  seashore  or  on  the  rolling  prai- 
ries, which  does  not  have  its  own  original  beauty. 
There  will  always  be  something  in  the  contour 
of  the  land,  in  the  plant  growth,  or  in  the  gen- 
eral outlook  of  the  grounds,  that  will  be  worthy 
of  serious  consideration.  There  may  be  massive 
trees  that  are  impressive  by  their  size  and  age 


364  AGRICULTURE. 

which  man  by  one  foolish  act  could  destroy, 
thus  undoing  what  it  has  taken  Nature  years  to 
develop.  "  A  tree  is  a  precious  inheritance  from 
the  past,  and  should  be  transmitted  to  posterity 
with  as  keen  a  sense  of  its  artistic  value  as 
though  it  were  a  famous  picture  or  statue."  * 

The  plan  must  be  specific,  and  it  would  be 
well  to  make  it  on  paper  with  pen  and  ink — 
planning  not  so  much  for  the  present  appear- 
ance as  for  the  finished  permanent  picture  ;  no 
tree,  vine,  or  shrub  of  a  permanent  character 
should  ever  be  planted  without  this  in  mind. 

Styles    of  Landscape-gardening. — In    making 
the  design  there  are  two  styles  from  which  to 
choose;  only  the  skilled  artist  can  combine  the 
two. 
I.  Geometrical  Style. 

In  this  method  of  landscape-gardening  the 
grounds  are  laid  out  in  squares,  circles,  or  other 
geometrical  designs  (Fig.  137).  The  trees  are 
planted  in  straight  rows,  the  shrubs  trained  to 
regular  patterns,  and  the  walks  and  drives  form 
definite  angles. 

This  style  may  be  followed  with  pleasing 
effect  along  public  boulevards,  around  large 
buildings  (Fig.  137)  with  steeples  and  spires,  and 
particularly  where  the  building  is  a  large  one 
upon  a  small  area.      It  heightens  the  outline  of 


*  M.  G.  Van  Rensselaer's  Art  Out-of-Doors. 


FIG.   137. — GEOMETRICAL   DESIGNS. 


<t6c 


366  AGRICULTURE. 

the  building  and  emphasizes  its  importance. 
Many  other  places  might  be  mentioned  where 
the  formal  style  of  gardening  would  be  effective 
and  desirable.  But  over  large  estates,  in  rural 
places  and  suburban  homes,  where  the  char- 
acter of  the  surrounding  landscape  retains  much 
of  its  natural  beauty,  a  formal  system  would  be 
entirely  out  of  place. 

II.  Natural  Style. 

This  is  best  liked  by  Americans  for  country 
homes  and  schools,  and  is  certainly  the  one  best 
adapted  to  them.  Nature  furnishes  ample 
material  and  many  suggestions  for  the  arrange- 
ment of  it.  He  who  succeeds  in  preserving  the 
natural  charms  of  a  place,  its  spirit  and  senti- 
ment, though  he  does  not  attain  to  the  highest 
perfection,  is  far  in  advance  of  the  one  whose 
first  attempt  is  to  obliterate  everything  natural  in 
order  that  he  may  substitute  some  stilted  and 
artificial  plan. 

Though  the  landscape-artist  has  given  due 
respect  to  the  natural  surroundings,  that  is  not 
all  there  is  for  him  to  do.  It  is  only  a  right 
beginning.  He  has  now  the  artificial  features — 
walks,  drives,  fences,  etc. — ^to  blend  and  harmon- 
ize in  his  landscape.  These  should  be  as  few 
as  convenience  will  permit.  "  They  should 
neither  be  so  straight  as  to  lack  beauty,  nor  so 
meandering  as  to  lack    good   sense."  *     There 

*  M.  G.  Van  Rensselaer's  Ar/  Oul  of  Doors. 


SCHOOL   AND    HOME   GROUNDS.  367 

should  be  a  legitimate  reason  for  a  curve  in  a 
drive.  Sometimes  there  will  exist  naturally  a 
small  hill,  a  clump  of  bushes,  or  a  tree  that  will 
afford  a  sufficient  reason  for  turnincr  aside. 
Otherwise  one  can.  make  the  curve  seem  natural 
by  planting  shrubs  or  a  tree.  Whatever  be  the 
device,  it  should  be  something  permanent  and 
real;  something  that  could  not  be  easily  de- 
stroyed or  removed.  A  flower  bed  would  not 
be  a  real  obstruction  ;  it  would  offer  no  resist- 
ance to  passing  wheels.  Not  only  would  it 
be  unsuitable  on  account  of  its  trivial,  transi- 
tory nature,  but  upon  grounds  large  enough 
to  require  a  road,  a  flower  bed  would  be  en- 
tirely out  of  place  in  the  foreground.  The  same 
principle  holds  true  in  the  construction  of  paths 
as  in  the  construction  of  drives.  Paths  and 
drives  are  for  utility,  not  for  beauty;  then  with 
that  aim  they  should  be  made. 

A  still  more  difficult  problem  than  that  of 
walks  and  drives  must  be  met,  and  that  is  what 
to  plant  and  how  to  plant.  This  question  ought 
to  be  studied,  for  there  are  few  places  but  what 
could  be  improved  by  the  judicious  use  of  orna- 
mental plants.  jNIrs.  V^an  Rensselaer  says: 
"  Two  trees  and  six  shrubs,  a  scrap  of  lawn,  and 
a  dozen  plants  may  form  either  a  beautiful  little 
picture  or  a  huddled  disarray "  of  forms  and 
colors.  Too  often  is  found  the  "huddled  dis- 
array" instead  of  the  beautiful  picture. 


368  AGRICULTURE. 

The  aim  in  placing  the  plantings  should  be 
to  so  arrange  them  as  to  allow  an  uninterrupted 
sweep  to  the  line  of  vision  wherever  some  pleas- 
ing landscape  lies  beyond,  and  to  hide  from  view 
any  buildings  or  objectionable  objects. 

The  sky-line  should  neither  be  too  much 
broken  nor  too  monotonous — perhaps  on  one 
side  rising  high  above  a  mass  of  trees,  with  pos- 
sibly a  spire  of  poplar,  while  on  the  other  side 
it  sinks  to  the  surface  of  meadow  or  lake. 

Lawns  form  the  basis  of  natural  grounds  for 
home  or  school.  The  center  of  the  grounds  in 
front  of  the  house  should  generally  be  devoted 
to  an  open,  unencumbered,  well-kept  lawn — a 
beautiful  foundation  for  any  grounds.  "  These 
lawns  may  be  kept  clipped,  or  the  grass  may  be 
allowed  to  grow  at  its  own  sweet  will  ;  but 
clipped  lawns  have  a  distinct  suggestion  of  arti- 
ficiality, and  the  clipping  should  be  confined  to 
the  vicinity  of  buildings  or  other  positions 
where  smooth  surfaces  and  straight  lines  are 
already  in  evidence  (Fig.  137).  The  unmowed 
lawn  is  suitable  for  larger  pieces  and  for  more 
emphatically      natural    surroundings"*     (Fig. 

138). 

The  plantings  should  be  upon  the  boundaries, 
near  the  building,  and  in  the  background. 
"  One  would  not  want  the  furniture  in  the  par- 
lor to  take  up  three-fourths  of  the  room ;  much 

*  Waugh's  Landscape  Gardening. 


370  AGRICULTURE. 

less  would  one  want  the  green  carpet  of  the  lawn 
nearly  covered  with  such  furniture  as  trees  and 
flower  beds."  *  And  one  might  emphatically  add 
much  less  such  monstrosities  as  trellises,  pattern 
beds,  rockeries,  camp-kettles,  vases,  paint-buck- 
ets, and  sewer-tiles.  A  summer-house,  too^  is 
out  of  taste  upon  the  front  lawn.  These  would 
mar  the  harmony  of  the  whole  surroundings. 

The  materials  for  plantings — trees,  vines, 
shrubs,  and  flowers — are  countless  in  number 
and  of  infinite  variety.  In  the  selection  and 
grouping  of  these,  harmony  of  color,  form,  and 
texture  must  not  be  forgotten.  Yet  the  ele- 
ment of  variety  must  enter  in,  or  the  picture 
will  grow  monotonous,  however  beautiful  it 
may  be. 

Trees. — The  most  valuable  plantings  from 
the  standpoint  of  beauty  and  utility  are  the 
shade-trees.  Their  artistic  value  is  embodied 
in  the  three  qualities — form,  texture,  and  color. 

The  form  of  a  tree  is  determined  by  its  out- 
line as  described  against  the  sky  or  other  trees. 
It  may  be  eliptical,  oval,  pear-shaped,  or  of  vari- 
ous other  outlines.  Structure  is  another  im- 
portant factor  in  determining  the  form  of  a 
tree.  This  relates  to  the  manner  of  branching, 
which  may  vary  all  the  way  from  the  drooping 
habit  of  the  "weeping"  willow  to  the  as- 
piring branches   of  the  poplar.     Thus  may  be 

*  Waugh's  Landscape  Gardening. 


372  AGRICULTURE. 

seen  the  inharmonious  effect  in  massing  to- 
gether trees  of  these  two  extremes — as,  the 
willow  and  the  poplar. 

The  texture  of  a  tree  is  determined  largely  by 
the  form  and  the  density  of  its  foliage  (Fig.  1 39). 
By  comparing  the  leaves  of  the  arbor-vitse  and 
those  of  the  pine,  the  great  trembling  leaves  of 
the  Cottonwood  with  those  of  the  weeping  wil- 
low, the  catalpa  and  cedar,  the  extreme  differ- 
ence will  be  at  once  apparent. 

The  seasons  bring  a  succession  of  charming 
changes  to  trees.  Spring  brings  only  hints  of 
green ;  summer  brings  the  dense  shadows  ; 
autumn  brings  the  glorious  colors  ;  but  it  is 
left  for  winter,  with  its  dull  gray  sky,  to  bring 
out  the  true  character  or  the  individuality  of 
the  tree — its  outline,  manner  of  branching,  and 
the  color  of  its  bark. 

In  summer  a  tree  "  is  shut  in  of  its  own 
leaves  and  shadow  ;  but  when  winter,  with  icy 
sword-blade,  hacks  away  the  last  tatter  of  sum- 
mer finery,  and  leaves  the  tree  to  stand  naked 
as  an  Indian  warrior,  then  does  it  proclaim 
itself."* 

In  the  natural  style  of  gardening,  trees  should 
stand  in  irregular  groups,  or  as  individuals 
standing  alone,  as  if  singled  out  on  account  of 
unusual  beauty  of  form,  color,  or  structure  (Figs. 
140,  141). 

*W.  A.  guayle's  In  GoiFs  Otit-of-Doors. 


SCHOOL   AND   HOME   GROUNDS.  3^3 

The  American  beech  makes  a  fine  specimen 
tree  in  rich  soil.  "In  autumn  there  is  a  harvest 
sunlight  on  the  beech  leaves  very  fair  to  see,  but, 
after  all,  the  beech  trunk  is  the  tree's  treasure." 

The  elm,  ash,  catalpa,  chestnut,  alder,  mul- 
berry, walnut,  tulip-trees,  maples,  and  oaks  by 
the  score  surely  give  ample  material  for  choice 
of  trees  to  be  used  in  groups  or  singly. 

As  street  trees,  none  can  excel  the  American 
elm.  "  The  elm-tree  is  always  bewitching.  In 
summer,  when  you  can  tell  this  tree  as  far  as 
you  can  catch  the  contour  across  the  fields  by 
the  grace  of  its  pose  and  its  rhythmic  swaying 
of  branches,  as  keeping  time  to  music  we  do  not 
hear; ...  in  winter  the  tree  has  its  winter  array. 
Flung  on  the  snow  or  seen  against  the  blue  sky 
or  gray,  it  is  as  graceful  as  any  tree  that  spreads 
under  the  sky."  * 

The  American  sycamore,  with  its  striking 
color  and  texture  of  foliage,  is  one  of  our  first 
trees.  It  is  grown  on  the  capitol  grounds  at 
Washington. 

The  sugar-maple  is  also  an  excellent  street 
tree ;  in  fact,  it  is  beautiful  in  many  places, 
especially  so  in  its  autumn  tints. 

The  linden  may  also  be  used  to  good  advan- 
tage as  a  street  tree. 

"  The  general  effect  of  an  evergreen  forest  is 
that  of  somberness."      In  the  North  the  use  of 


*  W.  A.  Quayle's  In  God's  Out-of-Doors,  p.  52. 


SCHOOL  AND  HOME  GROUNDS.  375 

a  few  evergreen  trees  adds  a  pleasing-  variety, 
especially  in  winter. 

Shrubs  may  be  used  for  a  greater  number 
and  variety  of  purposes  than  any  other  kind  of 
plants.  When  properly  massed,  they  form  ex- 
cellent screens  to  hide  unsightly  buildings  or 
shut  out  some  view  which  is  less  pleasing  than 
another.  These  masses  of  shrubbery  do  double 
duty,  for  they  not  only  act  as  a  screen  (Fig.  144), 
but  may,  with  the  addition  of  a  few  trees,  form 
an  excellent  background  for  the  whole  picture. 

As  has  been  already  suggested,  groups  of 
sturdy-growing  shrubs  may  be  used  in  the  curves 
of  walks  and  drives  as  substitutes  for  a  more 
natural  obstacle  to  necessitate  the  turning  aside. 
These  may  give  new  charm  to  the  landscape  by 
concealing  some  beautiful  vista  until  the  curve 
has  been  passed,  thus  adding  the  elements  of 
surprise  and  discovery  to  the  delight  of  the 
beholder. 

Masses  of  shrubbery  may  form  little  secluded 
nooks  or  a  quiet  corner  for  a  rustic  seat,  where 
one  may  steal  away  with  a  book,  or  simply  rest 
in  the  cool  and  inviting  retreat  (Fig.  142),  un- 
consciously feasting  the  eye  upon  the  beauty  of 
a  far-away  hill,  a  waving  meadow,  or,  it  may  be, 
upon  an  old-fashioned  flower  garden  at  one's 
feet. 

With  the  help  of  vines,  irregular  groups  of 
low-sfrowincf  shrubs  alono;  the  wall  or  within  the 


376 


SCHOOL  AND  HOME  GROUNDS. 


377 


angles  serve  to  unite  the  buildings  with  the 
grounds,  and  add  to  the  harmony  between  them. 
To  take  the  place  of  low-growing  shrubs 
along  the  walls  and  in  the  angles  of  northern 
exposures,  nothing  is  more  beautiful  than  ferns 


FIG.     143. — FERNS    AND    PHLOX. 

with  their  feathery  fronds  (Fig.  143),  which  can 
be  used  so  effectively  in  house  decorations. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  have  a  fence 
or  a  hedge  there  are  many  shrubs  adapted  for 
this  purpose — as,  roses,  barberries,  japonicas, 
bush  honeysuckles,  privets,  arbor-vitaes,  elder 
bushes,  sumachs,  and  a  dozen  others.  If  several 
kinds  of  these  shrubs  are  allowed  to  form  a  con- 
tinuous yet  irregular  band,  becoming  broader 


SCHOOL   AND    HOME   GROUNDS.  379 

in  one  place  and  higher  in  another,  and  in 
the  background  merging  into  a  clump  of  tall 
shrubs  or  small  trees,  the  effect  will  be  much 
more  natural  than  the  closely  sheared,  stiff 
hedge. 

Where  a  number  of  varieties,  species,  or 
genera  of  varying  habits  are  brought  together 
in  a  group  of  shrubbery,  the  effect  produced  by 
the  shades  of  differences  in  form  and  color  and 
texture  is  usually  more  pleasing  than  that  of  a 
group  formed  from  any  one  kind  alone. 

For  screens  and  masks,  tall-growing,  graceful 
shrubs  should  be  used  for  the  background  or  the 
center  of  the  mass,  and  the  outlines  should 
gradually  lose  themselves  in  the  lower  plantings 
and  green  sward  (Fig.  144).  The  plantings  must 
be  dense  enough  to  conceal  the  view  and  to 
hide  all  trunks.  Neither  trees  nor  shrubs  should 
expose  long,  bare  trunks,  making  them  look  as 
though  they  were  upon  stilts.  For  this  reason  it 
is  better  to  plant  thickly,  and  cut  out  some 
shrubs  when  they  need  thinning. 

In  massing  shrubbery,  again  the  gardner  needs 
to  know  his  plants.  He  should  know  those  that 
first  put  forth  their  leaves  in  spring,  the  time  of 
blooming,  and  the  character  of  flowers  and  fruit. 
In  general,  mass  those  shrubs  with  the  darker, 
restful  colors  in  the  background  and  those  of 
lighter  shades  in  the  foreground.  Those  forms 
that  blossom  successively  should  be  selected,  for 


380  AGRICULTURE. 

it  is  in  this  constant  chang^e  that  we  have  one  of 
the  chief  charms  of  the  ^^arden. 

As  to  material,  the  common  native  shrubs  are 
really  the  best.  Dogwoods  (Fig.  145),  elders, 
crab-apples,  Judas-trees,  sumachs,  buckberries^ 
snowberries,  wild  roses,  greenbriers,  honey- 
suckles, currants,  spice-bushes,  and  button- 
bushes — all  are  beautiful,  each  in  its  season. 

Besides  these  native  plants,  there  are  scores 
of  beautiful  and  inexpensive  ones  to  be  had — as, 
the  lilac,  mock-orange,  barberry,  japonica,  snow- 
ball, spirea,  deutzia,  hydrangea,  weigelia,  and 
many  beautiful  varieties  of  roses. 

There  are  multitudes  of  hardy  climbers  and 
annuals  that  may  be  used  over  porches,  arbors, 
and  against  the  bare  masonry  of  buildings. 
For  example,  the  climbing  rose,  honeysuckle, 
wistaria,  Virginia  creeper,  clematis,  trumpet- 
vine,  wild  grape,  and  hop-vine.  Such  annuals 
as  cypress,  Madeira,  cinnamon-vine,  wild  cu- 
cumber, morning-glory,  and  moon-vine  may 
often  be  used  to  advantage. 

Not  all  climbers  will  look  well  together,  nor 
be  suited  for  all  places.  Each  has  a  special 
charm  and  beauty  of  its  own,  determined  by  its 
habit  of  growth,  and  the  character  of  its  flowers 
and  foliage.  Hardy  climbers  are  more  effective 
in  uniting  the  lawn  and  walls  of  the  house  than 
annuals,  which  are  present  for  a  season  and  then 
gone,  leaving  not  only  the  junction  of  the  soil 


FIG.    145. — DOGWOOD    IN    FLOWKK. 


381 


382  AGRICULTURE. 

and  walls  bare,  but  the  work  to  be  done  over 
again  the  next  year. 

Flowers. — While  lawn,  trees,  and  shrubs  are 
the  main  features  of  our  plantings,  the  flowers 
must  not  be  forgotten.  True,  many  flowers  will 
be  had  from  month  to  month  from  the  shrubs, 
if  they  have  been  rightly  chosen.  But  some 
flowers  must  be  grown,  not  so  much  for  the  sake 
of  the  picture  "as  for  their  own  sweet  sake." 

First,  let  flowers  of  the  wild-wood  be  planted. 
Let  violets  of  all  kinds,  sweet-williams,  blue- 
bells, anemones,  spring  beauties,  or  dog's-tooth 
violets  peep  out  from  shady  recesses  among  the 
grass  and  shrubbery.   . 

The  old-fashioned  flowers,  such  as  phlox, 
poppy,  marigold,  pink,  petunia,  verbena,  and 
portulacca,  must  not  be  forgotten.  These  are 
appropriate  for  the  flower  garden  proper,  but 
should  not  be  scattered  over  the  lawn  to  dis- 
figure it. 

"  I  have  in   mind  a  garden  old, 

Close  to  a  little-known  highway. 
Where  aster,  pink,  and  marigold 

Keep  their  long  summer  holiday. 
'Mid  dreams  and  visions  manifold 
I   have  in  mind  a  garden  old. 

"  The  fragrance  of  old-fashioned  flowers. 
Where  hollyhocks  and  daisies  blow. 
Floats  on   the  wings  of  summer  showers 

Across  the  fields  of  long  ago. 
Lo!  from  the  sweet,  rose-ripened  bowers. 
The  fragrance  of  old-fashioned  flowers." 

— Frank  Walcott  Hutt. 


SCHOOL  AND  HOME   GROUNDS. 


383 


Asters,  chrysanthemums,  pansles  (Fig.  146), 
nasturtiums,  and  California  poppies  afford  flow- 
ers for  cutting,  but  do  not  grow  them  in  beds 
outside  of  the  flower  garden.  Rather  let  them 
fill  irregular  nooks  at  the  edge  of  the  shrubber) , 


FIG.    146. — PANSIES. 

and    shrub    and    fiower    will    each   enhance   the 
beauty  of  the  other  (Fig.  144). 

Bulbs  may  be  used  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  other  flowers,  and  the  season  of  blossoms  be 
greatly  advanced.  The  flowers  from  many 
bulbs  are  of  surpassing  beauty — as,  the  tulip, 
jonquil,  and  the  lily-of-the-valley.  Two  others 
that  are  most  pleasing  when  dotted  here  and 
there  over  the  lawn  are  those  cheery  little 
harbingers  of    spring,  the    crocus    and  the    un^ 


384 


AGRICULTURE. 


assuming    little    snowdrop,  the    most  welcome 
of  all. 

Tcnip07'ary  Screens.— \i   screens   are    needed 
for  a  season,  what  could  be  more  beautiful  than 


»:.  i  ***(*. 


KIG.   y^2>. — SHALL   THE   CHILDREN    PLUCK    FLOWERS    OR    RATTLE 
TIN    CANS    IN    THE    BACK    YARD? 


the  tall  sunflowers  flanked  by  bashful  golden- 
rods,  with  their  torches  of  shining  gold?  If 
anything  could  be  more  beautiful,  it  is  these 
same  plants,  now  robed  in  duller  hue,  casting 


38G  AGRICULTURE. 

their  outlines  against  the  winter  sky,  and  nod- 
ding a  welcome  to  the  birds  who  come  to  par- 
take of  their  bounties — or  blossoming  again, 
this  time  in  snowy  whiteness. 

Hollyhocks,     castor-beans,     cosmos,     dahlias, 
chrysanthemums,  and  asters  also  make  effective 


FIG.   149. — A    BOUQUET    OF    SWEET    PEAS. 

back-yard  screens  (Fig.  147),  as  do  also  sweet 
peas,  morning-glories,  moon-vines,  wild  cu- 
cumbers, and  Madeira-vines,  if  furnished  with 
a  support.  Here,  as  in  other  plantings,  one,  by 
rightly  choosing  from  among  the  myriads  of 
tall-growing  plants  or  vines,  may  have  an  abun- 
dance of  (lowers  throughout  the  season.  Among 
annual  climbers,  sweet  peas  should  be  given  the 
preference,  since  they  furnish  an  abundance  of 
fragrant   flowers  (Fig.  149)  for  decorating  the 


SCHOOL  AND  HOME  GROUNDS.  387 

rooms  and  table  from  June  to  October,  if  the 
flowers  are  picked  regularly  and  the  seed  pods 
not  allowed  to  form.  The  vines  should  be 
given  a  support  as  soon  as  the  tendrils  appear. 
Wire  netting  makes  a  good  and  durable  sup- 
port for  sweet  peas. 

Water. — If  the  possibilities  of  a  place  include 
water  in  the  form  of  rivulet,  stream,  or  pond, 
the  owner  is  indeed  fortunate.  Running  water 
enlivens  a  landscape ;  still  water  renders  it 
peaceful  and  quieting. 

Along  the  wooded  banks  of  the  brook  one 
expects  to  find  "  tangles  of  vines  and  branches 
and  brakes." 

The  pond  or  small  lake,  itself  a  thing  of 
beauty,  offers  unusual  opportunities  for  the  skill 
of  the  gardener.  Ash  and  sycamore  and  willow 
and  alder  are  looked  for  along  its  banks,  and 
it  is  surely  a  disappointment  if  none  of  them 
are  mirrored  in  its  silvery  surface ;  for  the 
reflections  in  the  water  (Fig.  150)  are  the  best 
part  of  the  picture.* 

A  pond  may  simply  look  like  a  "cup  set  in 
the  ground,"  or  form  the  most  beautiful,  and  es- 
sential part  of  the  picture.  A  fringe  of  willows 
may  overhang  its  banks  here  and  there.  At 
other  points  the  grass  and  rushes  should  quench 

*  Before  leaving  the  subject,  the  student  should  be  required 
to  draw  an  original  design  for  a  geometrical  style  and  one  for  the 
natural  style  of  landscape-gardening.  These  plans  should  be 
carefully  worked  out  in  ink  on  good  paper  and  discussed  in  class. 


388 


SCHOOL  AND  HOME  GROUNDS.        389 

their  thirst  in  the  water's  brink,  while  "  further 
along  the  sedges  and  cattails  may  jut  far  out 
into  the  still  water,"  upon  the  surface  of  which 
quietly  rests  the  lily  pads  (Fig.  150). 

C— REFERENCES. 

"  Plants  as  a  Factor  in  Home  Adornment."  Year-book,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1902. 

Cornell  Nature-Study  Quarterly,  No.  2. 

Part  II.,  Fifteenth  Annual  Report,  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Kingston,  Rhode  Island. 

"Landscape  Gardening."     W.  A.  Waugh.     1902.     4. 

"Art  Out-of-Doors.'  Mrs.  Van  Rensselaer.  Charles  Scrib- 
ner's  Sons,  N.  Y.     1900. 

"  How  to  Plant  the  Home  Grounds."  S.  Parsons,  Jr.  Double- 
day  &  McClure  Co.,  N.  Y.     1899. 

"  In  God's  Out-of-Doors."  Quayle.  Jennings  &  Pye,  Cincin- 
nati. 


OUTLINE   OF   CHAPTER   XIV. 

FARM   ANIMALS. 

E.    A.    TROWBRIDGE, 
Animal  Husbandry,   L'niversily  of  Missouri. 

^.—GENERAL   PRINCIPLES. 

I.  Early  History. 
II.  Improvement. 

III.  Heredity. 

IV.  Variation. 

1.  Atavism. 

2.  Ordinary    Variation. 

3.  Extraordinary    Variation. 

V.  Selection. 

1.  Natural  Selection. 

2.  Artificial  Selection. 

VI.  Functions  of  Animals  Under  Natural 

Conditions. 
VII.  Changes  Wrought  by  Man. 
VIII.  Relation  of  Form  and  Function. 


/?.— HORSES. 


I.  Light  Horses. 

1 .  Type. 

2.  Breeds. 

II.  Coach-Horses. 

1 .  Ty/^e. 

2.  Breeds. 

III.  Draft-Horses. 

I .  jype. 

2.   Breeds. 

I.  Beef-Cattle. 

1.  Type. 

2.  Breeds. 


C— CATTLE. 


391 


302  AGRICULTURE. 

II.  Dairy-Cattle. 

1 .  Type. 

2.  Breeds. 

III.  Dual- Purpose  Cattle. 

1 .  Type. 

2.  Breeds. 

Z>.— SHEEP. 
I.  Mutton  Form. 
II.  Wool  Form. 

(a)  Fine  Wool  Sheep. 

1 .  Type. 

2.  Breeds. 

(b)  Medium  Wooled  Sheep. 
I .    Type. 


2.  Breeds. 


A— SWINE. 


I.  Lard  Ho^s. 

1 .  Type. 

2.  Breeds. 

II.  Bacon  Hog's. 

1.  Type. 

2.  Breeds. 

A— POULTRY. 
I.  Laying  Fowls. 

1 .  Type. 

2.  Breeds. 

II.  Meat  Fowls. 

1.  Type. 

2.  Breeds. 

III.  General-Purpose  Fowls. 

1 .  Type. 

2.  Breeds. 

a— REFERENCES. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

FARM  ANIMALS. 

E.  A.  TROWBRIDGE. 
Animal  Husbandry,  Uniz'ersily  of  Missouri. 

I.  Early  History. 

The  early  history  of  domestic  animals  is  as 
much  in  obscurity  as  that  of  the  human  race. 
Biblical  references  to  some  classes  lead  us  to 
believe  that  they  were  known  at  a  very  early 
date.  The  findings  of  recent  investigators 
tend  to  prove  the  existence  of  prehistoric  ani- 
mals closely  akin  to  some  of  our  present 
domestic  animals,  particularly  the  horse.  These 
prehistoric  horses  were  very  small  and  different 
from  the  horse  of  to-day  in  having  two  or  more 
toes  instead  of  the  hoof,  and  their  teeth  were 
much  less  developed.  Their  color  was  probably 
more  or  less  striped,  resembling  the  zebra. 

Just  when  our  domestic  animals  were  brought 
into  close  relation  with  mankind  is  uncertain, 
but  it  is  a  certainty  that  it  was  at  a  very  early 
date.  They  were  first  used  for  food  and  their 
hide  for  clothing.  Later,  the  horse  and  ox 
were  used  as  beasts  of  burden,  and  the  horse 
was  of  great  aid  in  warfare. 

393 


.H<)4  AGRICULTURE. 

II.  Improvement. 

As  time  went  on  people  became  more  civi- 
lized. Their  habits,  customs,  ambitions  and 
demands  changed.  With  this  change  in  the 
people  themselves  many  changes  in  domestic 
animals  followed,  as  a  natural  consequence.  It 
was  a  general  change  in  the  direction  of  im- 
provement, although  this  was  not  always  the 
case. 

There  are  three  natural  laws  which  are  great 
factors  in  affecting  animal  form  and  character 
in  its  reproduction,  and  make  change  possible. 
They  are 

1.  Heredity. 

2.  Variation. 

3.  Selection. 

III.  Heredity. 

Ribot  defines  heredity  as  "  that  biological  law 
by  which  all  living  beings  tend  to  repeat  them- 
selves in  their  descendants."  This  is  the  law 
which  makes  possible;  the  r(isemblance  between 
a  parent  and  offspring,  and  is  well  expressed  in 
the  common  saying  that  "like  produces  like." 
It  is  this  principle  upon  which  we  depend 
for  the  transmission  of  milk-producing  quali- 
ties in  dairy  cattle,  speed  in  race-horses,  etc., 
and  by  which  we  are  able  to  maintain  a 
standard  of  breed,  characteristics  or  type  in 
animals. 


FARM   ANIMALS.  395 

IV.  Variation 

may  be  defined  as  the  tendency  in  animals  to 
produce  characters  in  the  offspring  which  differ 
from  those  of  the  parents.  This  law  has  given 
rise  to  the  common  expression  that  "  like  does 
not  always  produce  like."  At  first  sight  tliesc 
two  principles  would  appear  antagonistic  ;  but 
upon  further  study  their  difference  may  be 
understood. 

As  the  result  of  reproduction  of  animals  of  a 
certain  breed,  we  expect  offspring  which  re- 
semble the  parents  in  general  breed  characters. 
For  example,  it  is  natural  to  expect  an  Aberdeen 
Angus  cow  to  be  the  mother  of  a  hornless  calf, 
black  in  color  and  of  meat-producing  confor- 
mation ;  and  we  will  not  expect  her  to  be  the 
mother  of  a  fawn-colored  calf  with  horns  and 
capable  of  milk  production  at  maturity  rather 
than  beef  production.  Thus,  within  limits, 
"  like  produces  like."  On  the  other  hand,  we 
would  not  expect  this  calf  to  be  exactly  like  its 
mother  in  every  respect,  for  who  has  ever  seen 
two  animals  or  two  people  exactly  alike  ?  The 
calf  might  differ  from  its  mother  in  size,  spring 
of  ribs,  thickness  of  loin,  length  of  legs,  depth 
of  body  and  various  other  ways.  Thus,  we  see 
that  like  does  not  always  produce  like.  Should 
the  calf  differ  from  its  mother  in  these  minor 
details,  this  variation  would  be  called  gradual  or 
ordinary  variation.      But  should  it  possess  some 


396  AGRICULTURE. 

of  the  characteristics  mentioned  as  unexpected 
the  difference  would  be  called  spontaneous  or 
extraordinary  variation,  and  might  result  from 
many  different  causes. 

Animals  that  have  been  bred  for  a  long  time 
with  a  certain  type  in  view  are  more  likely  to 
produce  animals  of  that  type  than  are  those 
animals  that  have  come  to  this  desired  type  by 
differing  greatly  from  their  parents.  Thus,  one 
of  the  values  of  pure-bred  animals  is  their 
ability  to  reproduce  themselves  with  a  greater 
degree  of  accuracy  than  animals  which  have  not 
been  bred  pure. 

1.  Atavism. — It  sometimes  happens  that  ani- 
mals are  born  with  one  or  more  characteristics 
which  were  not  possessed  by  their  parents  or 
grandparents,  but  which  were  possessed  by 
their  ancestors  many  generations  prior  to  their 
existence.  This  inborn  tendency  of  animals  to 
revert  to  their  original  type  is  called  atavis?n,  or 
reversion. 

2.  Ordinary  Variatioji,  for  the  most  part,  is 
caused  by  some  of  the  many  factors  of  environ- 
ment. Among  these  factors  are  food,  climate, 
soil,  exercise  and  general  management.  Food 
is  one  of  the  most  important  among  them. 
Ample  food  supply  is  necessary  to  the  maximum 
growth  of  animals,  yet  overfeeding  leads  to 
sterility  and  lack  of  vitality  in  offspring.  A 
striking  example  of  the  effect  of  nutrition  upon 


FARM  ANIMALS.  397 

animals  is  the  Shetland  pony,  a  very  miniature 
horse  in  his  original  home,  but  gradually  in- 
creasing in  size  when  taken  to  a  country  of 
liberal  food  supply.  As  an  illustration  of  the 
effect  of  climate  on  animals,  one  may  observe 
the  Galloway  cattle  of  western  Scotland.  They 
have  developed  a  remarkably  heavy  coat  of  hair 
because  of  the  cold  and  stormy  weather  to 
which  they  have  been  subjected. 

Domesticated  cattle  receive  their  food  with 
very  little  exertion  other  than  that  of  eating, 
while  the  buffalo  of  the  Western  range  has  been 
forced  to  cover  considerable  territory  to  find 
sufficient  food.  This  continuous  exercise,  along 
with  the  severe  weather  endured,  has  brought 
about  the  lack  of  thick  fleshing  quality  and  the 
extraordinary  constitution  of  the  latter  animals. 

3,  The  causes  of  Spontaneous  or  Extraordi- 
nary Variation  are  not  well  understood.  It  is 
known,  however,  that  this  type  of  variation  is 
transmitted  only  very  irregularly.  Selection 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes  ;  namely,  natural 
selection  and  artificial  selection,  yet  the  latter 
has  certain  limits  put  upon  it  by  the  former. 

V.  Selection. 

By  Natural  Selection  is  meant  the  repro- 
ducing of  animals  most  capable  of  self-protec- 
tion, of  subsisting  and  again  reproducing  under 
existing  conditions.      It  is  what  has  been  called 


398  AGRICULTURE. 

the  natural  law  of  the  "survival  of  the  fittest." 
Among  cattle  those  animals  capable  not  only  of 
protecting  themselves  in  battle,  but  of  destroy- 
ing the  enemy,  which  might  be  weaker  animals 
of  their  kind  or  of  a  different  kind,  were  the 
survivors  and  remained  to  reproduce  them- 
selves. 

Those  individuals  not  able  to  withstand  the 
hardships  of  a  severe  climate  either  starved, 
froze  or  were  killed  by  their  stronger  brothers, 
who  fought  with  them  to  obtain  the  available 
food.  The  buffalo,  with  heavy  head,  neck, 
strong  fore-quarters  and  muscular  but  light 
hind-quarters,  has  this  conformation  ;  because  it 
permits  of  greater  strength  and  agility,  he  is 
able  to  destroy  his  enemy  and  to  move  about 
to  obtain  food. 

Artificial  Selection  is  the  mating  of  animals 
controlled  and  directed  by  men.  By  careful 
study  great  breeders  have  developed  our 
modern  breeds  of  live  stock.  They  have 
created  types  which  were  most  efficient  in 
particular  lines  of  production  and,  in  fact,  have 
changed  the  form  and  function  of  many  of  our 
domestic  animals. 

VI.  Primary  Functions  of  Animals. 

It  will  thus  Ijc  seen  that  the  laws  of  nature 
are  at  the  very  basis  of  all  life.  The  first 
function    of   animals  is  self-preservation.      For 


FARM   ANIMALS.  399 

preservation,  the  ability  to  gather  food  and  to 
protect  themselves  against  other  animals  and 
the  climate,  is  necessary.  The  second  function 
of  animal  life  is  that  of  reproduction,  which  is 
dependent  upon  general  strength  and  vigor. 
Animals  in  their  natural  state  have  developed 
temperament,  conformation  and  qualities  that 
best  fit  them  for  the  performance  of  these  life 
functions. 

But  under  domestication  cjreat  chanijes  have 
been  wrought.  Here  to  only  a  limited  extent 
may  we  say  that  animals  exert  themselves  for 
self-preservation.  Their  food,  shelter  and  pro- 
tection from  other  animals  is  supplied  by  man. 
In  domestic  animals  the  process  of  reproduction 
is  largely  directed  by  man,  consequently  they 
have  been  relieved  to  some  extent  of  the 
primary  functions  of  their  existence. 

VII.  Changes  Wrought  by  Man. 

Man,  however,  expects  remuneration  for  his 
labor  and  his  pains  and  seeks  to  obtain  it  in  one 
form  or  another.  He  not  only  lessens  the 
responsibility  of  domestic  animals  of  their  own 
preservation  and  reproduction,  but  seeks  by 
proper  nutrition,  care  and  selection  to  develop 
them  to  a  high  efficienc)-  along  a  given  line. 

As  an  example  of  this  development,  one  may 
note  the  dairy-cow.  Observation  taught  that 
some  animals  produced  more  milk  than  others. 
Basing  the  procedure  upon  the  law  of  heredit)-. 


400  AGRICULTURE. 

these  high-producing  animals  were  allowed  to 
reproduce  themselves.  Their  ability  to  produce 
milk  was  increased  by  proper  care  and  feeding. 
From  each  succeeding  generation  the  best  cows 
were  selected  and  allowed  to  reproduce,  the 
methods  of  feeding  and  caring  for  them  were 
improved,  until  we  have  the  dairy-cow  of  to-day, 
a  veritable  milk-producing  machine. 

Further  illustrations  of  man's  efforts  to  in- 
crease the  efficiency  of  domestic  animals  may 
be  observed  in  the  trotting-horse,  the  lard  hog, 
the  wool-producing  sheep  ;  in  fact,  all  classes  of 
domestic  animals. 

Thus,  through  these  factors  of  food,  care, 
selection  and  general  management,  prompted 
by  man's  necessities  and  his  desires,  the  various 
classes  and  breeds  of  live  stock  have  been 
developed.  They  have,  however,  been  de- 
veloped under  vastly  different  conditions  and  in 
widely  separated  locations.  The  development 
of  various  classes  in  their  respective  locations 
has  been  due  to  environment  and  the  demands 
of  the  people.  The  beef-cattle  business  on  the 
open  range  developed  there  because  of  the  vast 
amount  of  cheap  and  government  lands  which 
might  be  pastured.  The  scarcity  of  help  and 
markets,  and  the  vast  amount  of  land  and  cattle 
which  must  be  under  the  supervision  of  one 
man,  forbade  the  pursuit  of  any  but  an  exten- 
sive business.     Quite  opposite  are  the  conditions 


FARM  ANIMALS.  401 

surrounding  our  large  cities.  The  vast  popula- 
tion creates  a  demand  for  milk.  The  high 
price  of  land  prohibits  the  owning  of  large 
tracts  by  individuals,  and  the  dairy  business  is 
capable  of  enormous  profit  per  acre.  Hence 
we  see  to-day  the  districts  within  reach  of  our 
cities  attentive  to  that  branch  of  agriculture. 
To  make  the  dairy  business  profitable,  high- 
class  dairy-cattle  are  necessary. 

The  draft-horse  in  the  Northern  United  States 
is  the  result  of  a  demand  for  animals  to  do 
heavy  work  in  the  timber,  on  the  streets  of  the 
cities,  and  in  the  large  fields.  The  heavy  soil 
and  bad  roads  in  Virginia  and  Kentucky  brought 
about  the  development  of  the  American  saddle- 
horse.  Many  other  instances  of  similar  char- 
acter migrht  be  cited. 

But  without  proper  care  all  these  improved 
classes  of  animals  tend  to  revert  to  their  natural 
conditions,  under  which  they  can  protect  and  re- 
produce themselves  with  the  greatest  certainty. 
It  is  this  retrogression  that  man  guards  against 
by  selection,  care  and  management  of  his  live 
stock. 

VIII.  Relation  of  Form  and  Function. 

It  has  been  observed  that  animals  possessing 
great  efficiency  in  some  one  direction  have  cer- 
tain characteristics  in  common.  This  is  true 
whether  they  have  been  developed  independ- 
ently or  in   close  touch    witli   each   other.      As 


402  AGRICULTURE. 

an  example  of  this  we  have  the  draft-horse  in 
England,  and  the  draft-horse  in  Europe,  de- 
veloped to  a  great  extent  independent  of  each 
other,  yet  possessing  many  characteristics  in 
common.  Some  of  those  characteristics  com- 
mon to  both  are  weight,  temperament,  size  of 
bone  and  general  conformation. 

These  coincident  cases  found  in  all  classes  of 
live  stock  have  given  rise  to  ideas  regarding  the 
"relation  of  form  and  function."  To  just  what 
extent  form  and  function  are  related  is  difficult 
to  discern.  Factors  such  as  temperament  and 
invisible  characteristics  have  a  great  effect  in 
determining  the  efficiency  of  animals.  But  that 
animal  form  and  temperament  are  an  index  to 
their  function  and  efficiency,  within  limits,  can 
not  be  doubted.  Examples  of  this  may  be  ob- 
served in  all  classes  of  live  stock  with  which  we 
are  concerned.  From  the  following  paragraphs 
the  relation  of  the  various  forms  and  tempera- 
ments in  the  different  classes  of  live  stock  to 
their  function  and  efficiency  will  be  seen. 

There  are  certain  terms  by  which  we  refer  to 
characteristics  which  are  common  to  all  animals; 
namely,  quality,  conformation,  constitution, 
temperament,  capacity  and  early  maturity,  and 
sex  character. 

I.  Quality  is  an  indefinable  characteristic 
which  shows  strength  and  ability  for  perform- 
ance   without    coarseness,  and  is  indicated    in 


FARM   ANIMALS.  403 

animals  by  symmetrical  development,  clean-cut 
features,  strong,  closely  knit  bone,  well-defined 
joints,  pliable  elastic  skin  of  medium  thickness 
and  fine  hair,  all  of  which  go  to  make  up  an  ap- 
pearance of  general  refinement. 

2.  Conformation  refers  to  the  skeletal  and 
muscular  structure  and  development  of  animals. 

3.  Co7istitntion  refers  to  the  physical  powers 
of  animals,  their  ability  to  withstand  hardship 
and  disease.  It  also  refers  to  their  ability  to 
remain  healthy  and  produce  well  on  heavy 
rations.  It  is  indicated  by  a  broad,  deep  chest, 
a  well-proportioned  head,  and  a  clean-cut 
muzzle  of  medium  size.  A  sleek  coat  of  hair, 
bright  eyes,  and  alert  temperament  indicate 
thrift  and  general  good  health. 

4.  Temperament  is  the  characteristic  of  ani- 
mals indicating  nervous  control  and  ability  and 
disposition  to  do  work.  It  is  indicated  by  clear 
eye,  graceful  carriage,  style  and  vigor  in  action. 
Terms  commonly  applied  to  temperament  are 
lymphatic,  nervous,  sanguine  and  bilious. 

5.  Capacity  is  ability  of  animals  to  utilize 
food  for  the  production  of  milk,  meat,  wool, 
speed  or  strength,  as  the  case  may  be.  It  is 
indicated  by  good  appetite,  depth  and  width  of 
barrel  (well-developed  digestive  apparatus),  and 
disposition  to  utilize  food. 

6.  Early  Maturity  is  a  term  applied  to  the 


404  AGRICULTURE. 

tendency  of  animals  at  the  present  time  to 
reach  mature  form  and  begin  their  life's  work  at 
an  early  age. 

7.  Sex  Character  has  reference  to  the  femi- 
nine features  and  the  quiet  disposition  of 
females ;  the  strength,  aggressiveness  and  mas- 
culinity of  male  animals.  Animals  which  are 
clearly  lacking  in  sex  character  do  not  usually 
prove  valuable  in  a  herd  of  live  stock  kept  for 
breeding  purposes. 

From  the  following  discussion  will  be  seen 
the  various  classes  of  live  stock,  the  division  of 
these  classes  into  certain  rather  well-defined 
types  and  a  subdivision  of  these  types  into 
breeds.  The  descriptions  are  those  of  the  most 
efficient  animals  which  are  recognized  by  au- 
thorities on  the  various  classes  of  stock. 

i?.— HORSES 

are  classified  according  to  their  uses  to  a  great 
extent. 

LigJit  Horses  are  those  used  for  light  driving, 
road  work  and  riding. 

Coach-Horses  are  used  for  drawing  fashion- 
able turnouts  and  carrying  fine  harness.  They 
are  also  used  as  general-purpose  horses. 

Draft-Horses  are  used  to  perform  heavy 
work  of  any  kind  when  strength  and  weight 
are  required. 


FARM   ANIMALS. 


405 


I.  Li£(ht  Horses 

weigh  from  900  to  1,200  pounds  ;  stand  from  15 
to   16  hands  high,  the   larger  ones  being  pre- 


FIG.    151.  —  "artist    MONTROSE." 
Sweepstake  Saddle  Stallion,  at  World's  Fair,  Chicago,  III.,  Sept.  6,  1S93. 
Ridden  by  JtfT  liridgford. 

ferred.  They  are  somewhat  angular  in  con- 
formation, with  muscles  of  extreme  length 
rather  than  thickness.  Symmetrical  develop- 
ment throughout  is  essential.     The  head  should 


4(H)  AGRICULTURE. 

be  of'iiiedium  size,  carried  well  up,  with  a  grace- 
ful neck  of  medium  length  set  on  long  sloping 
shoulders.  A  short,  strong  back  with  long 
rump  and  tail  set  high  are  desirable.  l^he  legs 
should  be  set  squarely  under  the  body.  The 
skin  and  hair  should  be  fine,  the  bones  and 
joints  of  good  size  and  well  defined,  giving  a 
general  appearance  of  quality  and  good  breed- 
ing. Constitution  and  lung  capacity  are  indi- 
cated by  nostrils  of  medium  size,  by  a  well- 
defined  windpipe  and  a  deep  chest  of  medium 
width.  A  temperament  showing  spirit  and 
vigor  yet  tractability  is  desirable.  Without  this 
spirit,  the  high  and  vigorous  action  so  essential 
to  a  light  horse  is  impossible.  Both  at  the  walk 
and  at  the  trot  the  gait  should  be  regular, 
straight  and  springy.  These  horses  are  re- 
markable for  their  stamina  and  endurance. 

BREEDS    OF    THIS    CLASS. 

1.  Arabians,  which  are  a  very  old  breed; 
native  of  western  Asia  and  Africa.  They  are 
particularly  characterized  by  their  intelligence 
and  endurance,  and  have  had  marked  influence 
on  the  horses  of  to-day  through  the  English 
Thoroughbred. 

2.  TJi07'ougJibreds,  which  had  their  origin  in 
England  and  have  long  been  used  as  race 
(running)  horses.  They  have  been  of  great 
value  in  improving  the  quality  and  stamina  of 


FARM    ANIMALS.  407 

some  of  the  more  modern  breeds.  In  color 
they  are  usually  dark. 

3.  American  Trotters,  which  are  of  American 
origin  and  are  represented  by  a  preponderance 
of  blood  in  the  native  light  horses  of  America. 
They  are  usually  dark  in  color,  but  vary  greatly 
in  type.  Quality  and  stamina  are  outstanding 
attributes,  since  they  are  descended  from  the 
Thoroughbred. 

4.  Morgans,  a  branch  of  the  American  Trot- 
ters. 

5.  American  Saddle-Horses,  which  are  found 
most  numerous  in  Kentucky,  Missouri  and 
Tennessee.  This  breed  possesses  extreme 
style  and  quality  and  shows  five  gaits ;  namely, 
walk,  trot,  canter,  rack,  running  walk  or  fox 
trot  or  slow  pace.  The  solid  dark  colors  are 
preferred  in  this  breed. 

II.  Coach-Horses 

are  larger  than  those  of  the  former  class. 
They  range  in  weight  from  i ,  1 50  to  i  ,450  pounds, 
and  in  height  from  15.2  to  16  hands,  the  average 
weight  being  about  1,250  pounds,  and  height 
15.3  hands.  They  are  similar  to  Light  Horses 
in  skeletal  structure,  but  are  very  smooth  in 
conformation,  showing  thicker  muscles  and 
more  symmetrical  body  curves.  Their  use  is  to 
draw  fine  carriages  and  carry  fine  harness, 
consequently  style,  action  and  quality  are 
essential.      Extreme    hig^h    action   at   knee   and 


408 


AGRICULTURE. 


hock,  with  rather  a  short  but  straight  and 
elastic  stride,  is  desirable.  Speed  is  a  secondary 
consideration.  The  head  and  tail  should  be 
carried  high  and  every  action  should  be  that  of 


FIG.    152.  —  HACKNEY    STAI.LIOX    "SIR    HUMPHREY"    (9SS9),   956. 

Owned  by  Pabst  Stock  Farm,  Oconomowoc,  Wis.    Winnerof  ist  Prize  Hackney 

Stallion  and  Championship,  and  ist  Prize  for  Stallion  of  any  breed  for 

getting  harness  horses — at  the  International  Show,  I/)ndou,  Eng.,  1907. 


an  aristocrat.  The  skin,  hair  and  bone  should 
be  of  fine  texture,  showing  ample  quality. 
The  legs,  joints  and  feet  should  be  strong,  well 
placed  and  free  from  any  unsoundness  or 
blemish.     Vigor  and   high  spirit  should  be  in 


FARM   ANIMALS.  409 

evidence,  but  viciousness  is  not  tolerable.  This 
class  of  horses  are  used  for  short  drives  about 
cities  where  style  and  beauty  are  more  sought 
than  endurance  ;  hence  this  characteristic  is  not 
as  marked  as  in  the  lighter  horses.  The  solid 
darker  colors  are  preferable. 

This  class  of  horses  is  sometimes  called 
heavy  harness  horses  because  of  the  amount  of 
harness  which  they  are  forced  to  carry.  They 
are  also  said  to  come  nearer  answering  the  dual' 
purpose  idea  than  any  other  type  of  horse. 

BREEDS    OF    THIS    CLASS. 

1.  Hackneys,  a  breed  native  of  England  and 
used  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
for  hauling  heavy  stage-coaches  in  that  country. 
When  railroads  became  common  this  work 
ceased  to  exist  and  the  Hackney  was  developed 
toward  the  Coach-Horse  standard.  This  breed 
to-day  is  the  height  of  perfection  as  heavy  har- 
ness-horses. 

2.  French  Coach-Horses,  as  the  name  indi- 
cates, are  native  of  France.  They  are  commonly 
termed  "  demi-sang "  in  their  own  country, 
which  means  "half-blood,"  and  originated  from 
the  fact  that  they  contain  much  English  Thor- 
ougrhbred  blood  as  well  as  the  blood  of  native 
French  stock.  They  are  very  satisfactory  as 
coach-horses. 

3.  Gervia7i     Coach-Horses,     natives     of    Ger- 


410  .  AGRICULTURE. 

many,  and  larger  than  either  of  the  two  breeds 
mentioned  above.  They  are  particularly  known 
for  their  size,  but  are  frequently  lacking  in  finish 
and  action. 

4.  Cleveland  Days,  natives  of  England  and 
much  less  popular  now  than  in  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century. 

5.  American  Coach-Horses,  a  breed  now  in 
the  formative  stage  in  America.  They  are  be- 
ing evolved  from  the  most  acceptable  type  of 
American  Trotters. 

III.  Draft-Horses 

should  weigh  from  1,600  to  2,200  pounds,  and 
stand  from  15.3  to  16.3  hands  high.  Heavy 
weight  in  draft-horses  is  much  sought  after,  but 
quality  and  symmetry  are  not  sacrificed  for  it 
to  any  great  extent.  The  conformation  of  the 
draft-horse  should  be  broad  and  deep  in  body, 
low  and  heavily  muscled  throughout.  He  should 
have  long  sloping  shoulders  with  short,  broad 
and  thickly  muscled  back  and  loin.  The  rump 
should  be  of  medium  length  and  well  muscled, 
with  thighs  and  quarters  deep  and  strong.  A 
good  depth  of  barrel  indicates  good  feeding 
capacity.  Constitution  and  lung  capacity  should 
be  evidenced  by  deep,  broad  and  full  chest. 
The  bone  and  joints  of  the  legs  should  be  of 
good  size  and  show  quality.  The  feet  should 
be    large,    symmetrical     and     of     firm     texture. 


FARM   ANIMALS. 


411 


Quality  should  be  evident  to  produce  perfection. 
The  work  of  the  draft-horse  is  done  in  most  part 
at   the   walk,  and   this  gait  should  be  straight, 


KIG.     I53.^PF.RCHERON    STALLION    "  PINK,"  24,756  (47,  513  ). 

Owned  by  Dunham  &  Fletcher,  Wayne,  111.     Twice  Champion  at  the  Inter- 
national I<ive  Stock  Show. 


Springy,  well  balanced  and  rapid.  At  the  trot 
the  same  features  are  desirable.  An  energetic, 
yet  docile  disposition  is  essential.  Great  weight 
and  strength,  coupled  with  quality,  action  and 
symmetry,  constitute  perfection  in  this  class. 


412  AGRICULTURE. 

BREEDS    OF    DRAFT-HORSES. 

1.  Percherons,  a  breed  native  of  the  district 
of  La  Perche,  in  France.  These  horses  are 
more  numerous  in  America  than  other  draft 
breeds.  They  are  not  as  large  as  some  breeds, 
but  possess  endurance  and  wearing  ability. 
They  are  usually  gray  or  black  in  color,  with 
very  little  "feather."  * 

2.  Clydesdales,  native  of  Scotland  and  very 
popular  in  Northern  United  States  and  Canada. 
They  are  of  average  size  for  draft-horses  and 
have  particularly  good  action.  Bay,  black  or 
chestnut  with  white  markings  are  the  usual 
colors.     They  possess  some  feather. 

3.  English  Shires,  native  of  England  and 
popular  because  of  their  great  weight.  They 
are  usually  dark  in  color  with  some  white  mark- 
ings.    They  possess  considerable  feather. 

4.  Belgians  are  a  breed  of  horses  native  of 
Belgium.  These  horses  attain  great  weight  and 
are  good  feeders.  They  are  usually  bay,  brown, 
chestnut  or  roan  in  color,  and  possess  very  little 
feather. 

5.  Sjiffolk  Pnnch-Horses  are  natives  of 
England.  They  are  of  good  size  and  possess 
very  little  feather.  Their  color  is  always 
chestnut. 


*  A  growth  of  hair  springing  from  the  tendon  back  of  the  can- 
non bones. 


FARM  ANIMALS.  413 

CATTLE. 

These  are  divided  into  three  classes  ;  namely, 
beef  cattle,  dairy  cattle  and  dual-purpose  cattle. 

Beef-Cattle  are  used  for  the  production  of 
meat  almost  entirely. 

Dairy-Cattle  are  kept  for  the  milk  which  they 
are  capable  of  producing. 

Dual-Purpose  Cattle  are  used  where  both 
beef  and  milk  are  desired,  but  neither  as  a 
special  product.  To  this  class  belongs  the 
great  majority  of  cows  in  America. 

I.  Beef-Cattle 

ordinarily  attain  greater  weight  than  those  of 
any  other  class,  ranging  in  weight  from  1,400  to 
2,500  pounds,  varying  according  to  breed  and 
sex.  They  should  be  broad,  deep  and  of 
medium  length,  short-legged  and  compact.  The 
top  line  (shoulders  to  tail-head)  and  under  line 
(brisket  to  twist)  should  be  as  nearly  straight  as 
possible.  The  hair,  skin,  and  bone  should  be 
of  good  texture  to  show  quality.  A  mellow, 
elastic  skin  of  medium  thickness,  underlaid  by 
firm,  smooth  and  thick  tiesh,  is  termed  good 
"handling  quality."  The  shoulders,  ribs,  back, 
loin,  rump  and  hind-quarters  should  all  be 
covered  with  smooth,  firm  and  thick  flesh. 
Constitution  is  indicated  by  deep  broad  chest, 
large  muzzle,  clear  bright  eye  and  general 
thrifty   appearance.      A    mild    and    contented 


414 


AGRICULTURE. 


disposition  is  desirable,  but  vicious  and  lazy 
animals  are  intolerable.  A  deep  broad  barrel 
is  essential  as  an  indication  of  feeding  capacity. 
Enough  milk  to  raise  a  calf  is  necessary  in  this 
class    of    cattle.       Early    maturity  is    a    much 


FIG.    154. — PURE-BRED    ABERDEEN    ANGUS    STEER    "ANDY." 

Owned  by  Minnesota  Agricultural  College.    Three  years  a  winner  at  the 
International  l,ive  Stock  Show. 

sought  characteristic  in  modern  beef-cattle.  It 
is  indicated  by  the  compact  form  and  the  tend- 
ency to  fatten  at  an  early  age. 


BREEDS    OF    BEEF-CATTLE. 

I.  Shortho7ms,  a  breed  which  had  its  origin  in 
northeast  England,  but  owing  to  its  gi'eat  range 
of  adaptability  has  become  very  widely  scattered 


FARM   ANIMALS.  415 

and  is  particularly  numerous  in  the  United 
States,  Canada,  Australia  and  South  America. 
They  are  one  of  the  largest  beef  breeds.  As 
the  name  indicates,  they  have  short  horns,  flesh- 
colored  muzzles  and  may  be  red,  red  and  white, 
white,  or  roan  in  color. 

2.  Herefords  are  natives  of  Herefordshire, 
England.  They  have  disseminated  widely  and, 
owing  to  their  hardiness,  have  been  used  on  the 
ranges  in  this  and  other  countries  in  great  num- 
bers. They  have  rather  large  horns,  flesh-colored 
muzzles,  and  have  for  a  color  some  shade  of  red 
with  white  faces  or  heads  and  white  along  the 
underline. 

3.  Aberdeen  Angus  Cattle  are  natives  of  north- 
east Scotland.  They  have  been  popular  at  a 
later  date  than  the  above-mentioned  breeds,  and 
owe  their  popularity  to  their  excellent  killing 
qualities.  They  are  hornless,  and  black  in  color, 
with  possibly  a  bit  of  white  on  the  underside  of 
the  body. 

4.  Galloivay  Cattle  have  southwestern  Scot- 
land for  their  home.  They  have  not  been  dis- 
seminated as  widely  as  the  other  breeds,  but  are 
improving  in  beef  quality  and  increasing  in 
popularity.  They  are  hornless  cattle,  black  in 
color,  with  some  white  on  the  underside  of  the 
body.  They  differ  from  the  Abei'deen  Angus 
in  not  being  as  thick-fleshed,  and  in  having  a 
longer  coat  of  hair,  which  is  wavy. 


416  AGRICULTURE. 

5.  Sussex  Cattle  are  natives  of  Sussex,  Eng- 
land.    They  are  solid  red  in  color. 

6.  West  HigJila7id  Cattle  are  natives  of  the 
uplands  of  Western  Scotland.  They  vary  in 
color  from  yellow  to  red,  black  and  brindle. 

II.  Dairy-Cattle 

have  come  to  be  veritable  milk-producing 
machines.  In  milking  condition  they  show  little 
superfluous  flesh  and  a  very  angular  form.  They 
should  develop  the  triple-wedge  conformation. 
By  this  is  meant  that  they  should  widen  from 
the  withers  to  the  shoulder  joints,  from  the 
withers  backward  and  downward,  and  from  chest 
to  abdomen,  as  viewed  laterally.  Quality  is 
paramount  in  dairy-cattle,  and  is  shown  by  fine 
skin,  hair,  bone  and  symmetrical  development. 
Active,  alert,  energetic,  yet  tractable  disposition, 
showing  great  nervous  energy,  with  a  propensity 
to  utilize  food  for  dairy  production,  constitutes 
dairy  temperament.  It  is  indicated  by  clear,  in- 
telligent eyes,  energetic  yet  perfectly  controlled 
actions,  and  lack  of  superfluous  flesh.  Spinal 
processes  which  are  prominent  and  wide-spaced 
indicate  nerve  force.  Constitution  is  indicated 
by  depth  and  width  of  chest,  medium-size,  and 
a  healthy  condition.  The  factors  indicating 
capacity  are  medium-size  muzzle,  deep  and  broad 
barrel,  and  good  appetite.  The  udder,  which  is 
a  very  important  consideration,  should  be  broad 
and  capacious,  attached  well  up  behind  and  well 


FARM  ANIMALS. 


417 


forward  on  the  abdomen.  Teats  should  be  of 
medium  size  and  squarely  placed.  The  struc- 
tural formation  of  the  udder  should  be  glandular, 


FIG.    155. —  "UNIVERSITY    DAIZIE."       168,596.       A.J.C.C. 

Owned   by  University   of   Missouri.      Record   of    University  Daizie  :   7  days, 

2S97  lbs.  milk;   7  days,   1499  lbs.  butter  fat;  i  year,  9,9<>S.4  lbs.  milk; 

I  year,  545. 85  lbs.  butter  fat.     Average  test,  5.46  per  cent,  butter  fat. 

without  superfluous  flesh.  Tortuous  and  promi- 
nent milk  veins  entering  the  abdomen  well  for- 
ward indicate  a  large  supply  of  blood  to  the 
udder. 

BREEDS    OF    DAIR V-CATTLE. 

I.  Jei^scys,  which  are  natives  of  the  island  of 
that  name  in  the  English  Channel,  have  been 
widely  disseminated  because  of  their  popularity. 
As  a  breed  they  incline  to  be  small,  but  show 
extreme  quality.      Typical  Jerseys  vary  in  color 


418  AGRICULTURE. 

from  a  light  fawn  to  nearly  black,  possessing 
small  horns  and  a  black  muzzle  encircled  by  a 
creamy  streak.  This  breed  is  famous  for  the 
quality  rather  than  the  quantity  of  milk  pro- 
duced. 

2.  Holsteins  are  natives  of  Holland  and  have 
attained  a  reputation  for  the  large  quantities  of 
milk  which  they  produce.  The  percent  of 
butter  fat  in  their  milk  does  not  average  high. 
They  are  large  cattle,  black  and  white  in  color, 
with  a  black  muzzle  and  medium-sized  horns. 

3.  Dutch  Belted  Cattle,  natives  of  Holland, 
are  similar  to  the  Holsteins  in  many  respects. 
They  are  black  with  a  white  belt  around  the 
body,  hence  the  name. 

4.  Gjiernseys  have  the  island  of  Guernsey,  in 
the  English  Channel,  as  their  native  home. 
They  are  somewhat  larger  than  the  Jerseys, 
produce  a  good  quantity  of  milk  with  a  percent 
of  butter  fat  above  the  average.  Their  color  is 
reddish  or  brownish  fawn,  with  white  markings 
over  the  body.  The  muzzle  is  tlesh-colored 
and  the  skin  is  creamy  yellow.  The  horns  are 
medium  in  size. 

5.  Ayrshires  are  natives  of  the  county  of 
Ayr,  in  southwestern  Scotland.  They  are 
numerous  in  Canada  and  Northeastc^rn  United 
States.  In  quantity  of  milk  produc(;d  they  are 
somewhat  above  the  average,  but  the  percent 
of  butter  fat  is  mediocre.     The  approved  colors 


FARM  ANIMALS.  419 

include  brown  or  red  flecked  with  white,  or 
white  flecked  with  red  or  brown.  A  black 
muzzle  and  upturning  horns  are  typical. 

6.  French-Canadian  Cattle  are  natives  of  the. 
Province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  and  solid  black  in 
color. 

7.  Kerry  Cattle  are  black  or  red  in  color, 
having  Ireland  as  their  original  home. 

III.  Dual-Purpose  Cattle, 

owing  to  their  double  function,  are  spread 
widely  over  America  and  include  the  great 
majority  of  native  cows.  They  produce  both 
milk  and  beef,  but  do  not  equal  in  either  capacity 
the  cattle  of  special-purpose  type.  In  form 
they  are  a  compromise,  showing  less  flesh  than 
the  beef  breeds,  yet  more  than  the  dairy  breeds. 
Quality  and  constitution  are  very  essential. 
The  temperament  should  be  such  that  they 
carry  very  little  superfluous  flesh  during  the 
milking  period,  but  upon  cessation  of  the  flow 
of  milk  they  should  fatten  readily.  Good 
barrel  capacity  and  appetite  are  required. 
The  udder  in  many  cases  lacks  the  capacity 
found  in  the  dairy  breeds. 

br?:eds  of  dual-purpose  cattle. 

I.  Red-Polled  Cattle  were  first  recognized  as 
a  breed  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  England. 
They  are  red  in  color  and  may  have  some  white 
about  the  udder.      As  the   name  indicates  they 


420  AGklCULTUk£.. 

are    hornless,     and    owe    their     popularity    in 
England  and  America  to  their  dual  capacity. 

2.  Devon  Cattle  are  natives  of  the  county  of 
Devon,  in    southwestern   England.     The  color 


KiG.    156.  —  KED-1'OI.LED    BULL    "  BOUNCE"      11,287. 
Bred  by  J.  W.  Martin,  Gotham,  Wis.     Owned  by  H.  S.  Garman,  Adeline,  111. 
Senior  Champion  at  Illinois  State  Fair,  1906. 

of  this  breed  is  light  red,  although  some  dark 
ones  are  seen.  A  very  little  white  on  the  udder 
is  admissible.  The  muzzle  is  flesh-colored  and 
the  horns  incline  to  l)e  large  and  upturning. 

3.  Jh'cnvn  Szu/ss  Cattle  are  natives  of  Switzer- 
land, yet  are  used  in  America  to  some  extent. 
They  are  of  medium  size,  brown  or  mouse 
colored,  with  shades  varying  from  dark  brown 
to  gray.     The  muzzle  is  dark  in  color,  encircled 


FARM   ANIMALS. 


421 


by  a  creamy  ring".     The  horns  are  of  medium 
size. 

4.  Milking  Shorthorns  are  a  branch    of  the 
Shorthorn    breed    developed    as    milch    cows. 


FIC.     157. — SOUTHDOWN'    WETHER. 

Grand  Champion  Wether.     International  I,ive  Stock  Show,  1907.     Shown  by 
Sir  George  Drunimond,  of  Quebec. 

They  do  not  mature  as  early  nor  carry  as  much 
flesh  as  do  those  of  the  beef  strain. 

SHEEP. 
I.  Mutton  Form. 

The  highest  efficiency  of  mutton  form  is 
represented  by  a  sheep  of  low,  blocky  form, 
broad,  deep  and  of  medium  length,  carrying 
width    of    back    from    shoulders    to    tail-head. 


422 


AGRICULTURE. 


The  back  should  be  straight  and  strong  and  the 
underline  well  let  down.  A  thick  coverinor  of 
flesh  should  be  present  over  the  back,  loin, 
rump  quarters,  shoulders  and  ribs.  Quality 
should    be    evidenced    by    fine    hair   and   wool. 


FIU.     158.  —  RAMHOUII.LET    RAM. 


mellow  skin  and  bone  of  firm  texture.  Strength 
should  not  be  sacrificed  for  quality.  A  deep 
broad  chest  and  a  clean-cut  muzzle  of  medium 
size,  along  with  general  vigorous  and  healthy 
condition,  are  indications  of  constitution.  Capa- 
city to  grow  and  fatten  is  indicated  by  well- 
sprung  ribs,  deep  but   not  pendent   barrel,   and 


FARM   ANIMALS.  423 

good  appetite.  With  sheep,  as  with  all  other 
classes  of  animals,  ability  to  fatten  and  mature  at 
an  early  age  is  desirable. 

II.  Wool- Producing  Form. 

The  wool-producing  sheep  have  been  developed 
with  very  little  attention  given  to  mutton  con- 
formation. They  are  small  and  do  not  mature 
so  early  as  sheep  of  the  mutton  form.  They 
lack  the  smoothness  of  shoulders,  the  fullness 
of  ribs  and  covering  of  back,  rump  and  quarters 
which  is  present  in  the  mutton  sheep.  They 
are  comparable  to  the  dairy-cow  in  carrying 
little  flesh  and  possessing  the  w^edge  conforma- 
tion. The  legs  are  rather  short,  but  often 
crooked.  Quality  in  the  extreme  is  a  much- 
admired  characteristic,  and  is  indicated  by  fine 
bone,  skin  and  hair.  The  fine  well-crimped 
fleece  also  shows  quality.  They  should  possess 
strong  constitution,  which  is  evidenced  by  deep 
and  broad  chest  and  general  health  and  vigor 
of  the  animal.  The  weight  of  the  fleece  de- 
pends to  some  extent  upon  the  nutrition  of  the 
animal,  consequently  a  good  barrel  and  appetite 
are  essential  as  indicative  of  capacity.  What 
may  be  termed  the  strictly  wool-producing  sheep 
belonof  to  the  fine-wool  class,  and  in  order  to 
give  more  surface  for  growth  of  wool  they  have 
a  very  wrinkled  skin.  The  wrinkles  are  par- 
ticularly numerous  around  the  neck,  in  the 
flanks  and  over  the  rump. 


424  AGRICULTURE. 

Since  sheep  were  first  used  for  wool  produc- 
tion, the  breeds  are  more  easily  classified  on 
that  basis  than  upon  a  basis  of  mutton  produc- 
tion. The  kind  of  wool  determines  the  class  to 
which  the  breed  belon":s.  There  are  three 
classes — known  as  Fine  Wool,  Medium  Wool 
and  Long  WooL 

BREEDS    OF    FINE-WOOL    CLASS. 

1.  American  Meinnos  are  descendants  of  the 
Spanish  Merino,  a  breed  native  of  Spain.  These 
sheep  were  early  brought  to  America  and  im- 
proved. They  came  to  be  called  American 
Merinos.  This  breed  is  very  small,  but  yields 
a  heavy  clip  of  wool,  rams  occasionally  shearing 
above  thirty  pounds.  The  wool  is  very  fine  and 
contains  considerable  yolk.|  The  rdms  carry 
heavy  spiral  horns,  but  the  ewes  are  hornless. 
The  face  and  ears  are  covered  with  white  hair, 
while  wool  covers  the  body  to  a  great  degree. 

2.  Delaine  Meri^ios  are  a  breed  which  origi- 
nated from  the  American  Merinos,  and  differ 
from  them  only  in  that  they  possess  more  of  a 
mutton  conformation,  are  less  wrinkled  and 
shear  somewhat  less.  The  breed  is  composed 
of  several  sub-breeds  or  types,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  are  the  National,  Standard  and 
Dickinson.  They  are  somewhat  larger  than  the 
American  Merinos. 

3.  Rambouillets  are  natives  of  brance,  and 
may  be  called  the   French  improvement  of  the 


FARM  ANIMALS.  425 

old  Spanish  Merino.  They  are  the  best  mutton 
breed  in  the  Fine-Wool  class,  and  have  less 
wrinkles  than  the  before-mentioned  breeds,  yet 
shear  very  well.  They  are  larger  than  the 
Delaines,  and  have  a  fleece  which  is  somewhat 
coarser;  otherwise  these  breeds  differ  very  little. 

BREEDS    OF    MEDIUM    WOOL    CLASS. 

1.  English  Down  Breeds  are  all  natives  of 
some  part  of  England.  They  all  possess  excel- 
lent mutton  form  with  a  fair  fleece.  The  fleece 
is  coarser  than  the  fine  wool,  and  does  not  con- 
tain as  much  yolk.  None  of  them  possesses  horns, 
and  the  face  and  legs  vary  in  color  from  grayish 
brown  to  black,  according  to  breed.  They  rank 
in  size  as  follows,  the  first  being  the  largest: 
Oxfords,  Hampshires,  Suffolks,  Shropshires  and 
Southdowns. 

2.  Dor  sets  are  natives  of  England  and  par- 
ticularly  famous  as  early  lamb  producers.  They 
yield  fair  fleece  and  carcass.  Both  males  and 
females  possess  horns,  and  the  face  and  legs  are 
covered  with  white  hair. 

3.  Cheviots  have  the  border  country  between 
England  and  Scotland  as  an  original  home. 
They  are  very  attractive  sheep,  being  entirely 
white,  but  not  as  a  rule  very  thick-fleshed,  shear 
ing  only  an  average  clip. 

4.  Tunis  Sheep  are  the  breed  often  referred 
to  as  the  fat-tailed  sheep,  native  of  northern 
Africa. 


426  AGRICULTURE. 

BREEDS    OF    LONG-WOOL    SHEEP. 

1.  Leicester s,  natives  of  the  county  of  Leices- 
ter, in  central  England,  are  a  large  breed.  They 
possess  good  mutton  form  and  shear  a  fleece  of 
medium  weight.  The  wool  is  long  but  rather 
coarse.  The  head  and  legs  are  covered  with 
soft  white  hair,  and  the  wool  ceases  to  grow  just 
back  of  the  ears,  forming  a  sort  of  collar.  Black 
spots  in  the  hair  on  the  head  frequently  occur. 
This  breed  is  hornless. 

2.  Lincoln  has  for  its  home  the  county  of 
Lincoln,  England.  It  is  among  the  largest  of 
the  breeds  of  sheep  possessing  good  mutton 
conformation  and  shearing  a  fleece  very  similar 
to  the  Leicester.  The  head  and  legs  are  covered 
with  white  hair,  except  for  a  tuft  of  wool  on  the 
forehead.     It  closely  resembles  the  Leicester. 

3.  Cotswolds  are  also  natives  of  England,  the 
southwestern  part.  They  are  very  similar  to 
the  Lincolns  in  size,  form  and  fleece.  The 
head  and  legs  are  covered  with  hair,  except  for 
a  pronounced  foretop  which  falls  in  tangles  over 
the  face.  Flecks  of  black  are  often  seen  on  the 
head  of  this  breed. 

HOGS 

are  divided  according  to  the  kind  of  meat  which 
they  produce. 

Lard  Hoj^s  are  those  yielding  quantities  of 
meat  which  is  excessively  fat. 


FARM   ANIMALS. 


427 


Bacon  Hogs  are  those  which  when  slaughtered 
show  a  carcass  of  fat  and  lean  well  interlaid. 
They  are  famous  for  their  "side  of  bacon." 

I.  Lard  Hogs 

yield   a    higher  percentage    of   carcass    to   live 
weight  than  any  other  meat-producing  animal. 


l-IG.     150. CHAMPION    I'DLAM)    CHINA    IJAKKOW. 

International  1906.     Bred  and  exhibited  by  Iowa  Agricultural  College. 

They  vary  in  weight  at  maturity  from  400  to 
700  pounds.  They  possess  short  legs,  a  com- 
pact form  with  medium  depth,  great  width  and 
considerable  length  of  body.  The  back  is 
broad  and  of  even  width,  showing  a  slight 
arch  from  shoulders  to  tail.  The  underline  is 
straight.  A  thick  covering  of  flesh  over  all 
parts  of  the  body  is  essential.  Fine  hair,  clean 
bone  and  features,  with  a  symmetrical  develop- 
ment throughout  indicate  quality.      Deep,  broad 


428  AGRICULTURE. 

chest  and  a  vigorous  condition  are  evidences  of 
constitution.  The  temperament  desired  is  quiet 
and  contented,  not  vicious.  Good  appetite  and 
barrel  along  with  this  temperament  may  be 
translated  as  ability  to  fatten.  This  ability  to 
fatten  at  an  early  age  is  particularly  desirable  in 
lard  hogs. 

BREEDS    OF    LARD    HOGS. 

1.  Poland  Chinas,  a  breed  first  developed  in 
the  Miami  Valley  of  Ohio,  but  now  widely  dis- 
seminated over  the  United  States.  They  are 
of  the  most  extreme  lard-hog  type  and  show 
much  quality.  Their  color  is  black,  with  white 
feet,  tail  and  face.  They  have  small  ears,  which 
break  one-third  of  the  way  from  the  tip  toward 
the  head. 

2.  BerksJiires  are  natives  of  England  and 
were  imported  and  bred  in  America  in  consider- 
able numbers.  They  incline  toward  the  bacon 
type  in  some  cases,  yet  possess  great  quality. 
Their  color  is  black  with  six  white  points — feet, 
tail  and  face.  Their  ears  are  erect  and  face 
decidedly  dished. 

3.  Duroc  Jerseys,  the  outgrowth  of  the  union 
of  two  breeds  of  red  hog-s  in  New  York  and 
New  Jersey.  They  are  a  very  vigorous  type  of 
hogs  and  are  being  disseminated  rapidly.  The 
ideal  color  of  this  breed  is  cherry  red,  but  they 
vary   from   light   red    to   very    dark,  with  some 


FARM   ANIMALS.  429 

black  hair  occasionally.     Their  ears  break  one- 
third  of  the  way  from  the  tip  to  the  head. 

4.  Chesterw kites,  a  breed  native  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. They  possess  good  quality  and  lard-hog 
conformation.  The  color  of  the  hair  is  white, 
while  the  skin   shows  occasionally  a  blue  spot. 


FIG.    160. — LARGE   YORKSHIRE   BOAR,"hOLY\VELL    ROYALTY    II." 
Bred  and  exhibited  by  Sanders  Spencer,  Holywell  Manor,  England. 

Their  ears  are  pendent,  but  should  not  be  over- 
size. 

5.  CJicsJiires,  a  white  breed  having  its  origin 
in  Jefferson  County,  New  York. 

6.  Victorias,  white  in  color,  and  natives  of  the 
United  States. 

7.  Essex   Swine,    natives    of    Essex    County, 
England;  black  in  color. 

8.  Small  Yorkshires,  an  English  breed,  white 
in  color  and  having  a  dished  face. 


430  AGRICULTURE. 

II.  Bacon  tio^s. 

This  class  of  hogs  attains  considerable  weight 
at  maturity,  but  has  not  the  propensity  to  fat- 
ten which  is  found  in  the  lard  hogs.  Smooth- 
ness and  well-mingled  fat  and  lean  are  desirable 
in  bacon  carcasses.  The  back  is  long,  arched 
and  smooth.  The  underline  is  straight.  The 
shoulders,  sides  and  hams  are  deep,  firm  and 
smoothly  fleshed.  The  legs  and  head  are  longer 
than  in  the  lard  hogs.  Fine  hair,  clean  bone 
and  smoothness  are  evidences  of  quality.  The 
temperament  is  inclined  to  be  alert,  but  should 
not  be  vicious.  The  ability  to  rapidly  make  a 
smooth  carcass  of  fat  and  lean  well  interlaid  is 
the  desired  capacity.  This  type  of  hog  is  par- 
ticularly rugged,  has  a  deep,  broad  chest,  and  is 
capable  of  caring  for  itself. 

BREEDS    OF    BACON    HOGS.       .  .  ,     ,     -  .'■ 

1.  Tamworths,  native  of  central  England. 
This  breed  possesses  great  length  and  depth  of 
side  and  ham.  They  are  inclined  to  have  rather 
long  legs  and  head,  but  are  very  hardy.  Their 
color  is  cherry  red.  The  face  is  somewhat 
dished,  and  the  ears  are  large  and  incline  for- 
ward, but  do  not  break. 

2.  Large  Vorkskires,  an  English  breed,  are 
white  in  color.  The  face  is  dished  and  the  ears 
erect.  In  thickness  of  flesh  they  exceed  the 
Tamworths,  but  are  no  smoother. 


FARM   ANIMALS.  431 

3.  Thin  Rinds,  or  HampshireSy  are  probably 
native  of  Hampshire,  England.  They  vary  in 
type,  some  inclining  to  be  thick-fleshed,  while 
others  show  a  strictly  bacon  type.  Their  color 
is  striking,  being  black  with  a  white  belt  around 
the  body.  The  face  is  not  dished,  and  the  ears 
incline  forward,  but  do  not  break. 

POULTRY. 

Chickens  are  divided  into  three  classes; 
namely,  Laying  Fozvls,  Meat  Foivls  and  General- 
Purpose  Fowls.  ^ 

I.  Laying  Fowls. 

The  chickens  belonofincr  to  this  class  are 
alert,  bright  and  active.  They  do  not  possess 
the  ability  to  produce  meat  to  any  great  extent. 
Their  alert  and  active  disposition  is  not  con- 
ducive to  meat  production.  They  may  be 
comparable  to  the  dairy-cow,  in  that  they  are  in 
a  sense  a  machine  of  production. 

The  breeds  which  belong  to  this  class  are  : 

LegJiorns,  supposed  to  have  originally  come 
from  the  Mediterranean  Coast.  There  are 
several  varieties;  namely,  the  Buff,  Brown, 
Black  and  White  Leghorns.  They  differ  very 
little  except  in  color. 

Minor eas  are  of  Spanish  ancestry.  There 
are  different  varieties  of  these,  but  all  are  egg- 
producers  rather  than  meat  fowls. 


432  AGRICULTURE. 

II.  Meat  Fowls. 

This  class  of  chickens  are  large  and  quiet. 
They  are  the  least  prolific  as  egg-producers  of 
these  classes,  but  their  propensity  to  fatten  is 
very  marked. 

The  breeds  which  belong  to  this  class  are  the 
Asiatic  fowls. 

BREEDS    OF    MEAT    FOWLS. 

1.  Brahmas,  including  light  and  dark. 

2.  Langs hans  of  several  varieties. 

3.  Cochins. 

III.  General- Purpose  Fowls. 

This  type  of  fowl  produces  both  meat  and 
eggs  in  the  average  degree.  It  does  not  excel 
in  either  phase  of  production.  It  is  of  medium 
size,  and  may  be  called  the  "farmer's  hen." 

BREEDS    FOR    GENERAL    PURPOSE. 

1.  Rocks,  Barfed,  Buff  or  White. 

2.  Wyandoiies,  White,  Buff,  Silver,  Golden, 
Black  and  Partridge. 

3.  Orpi7igtons. 

Scoi-e  Cards  for  the  judging  of  any  kind  of 
farm  animals  may  be  obtained  from  your  State 
Experiment  Station.  Send  for  them  and  try  to 
use  them  with  the  animals  of  some  farmer. 


aj    r^ 


=    & 


434 


FARM  ANIMALS.  435 

e*.— REFERENCES. 

"Judging  Live  Stock."     John  A.  Craig. 

"Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals."     Charles  S.  Plumb. 

"  The  Study  of  Breeds."     Thomas  Shaw. 

"  Animal  Breeding."     Thomas  Shaw. 

"  Practical  Sheep  Farming."     Joseph  E.  Wing. 

"Conformation  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Cattle."  Farmer's  Bulletin 
No.  143.     Washington. 

"Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens."     Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  51. 

"The  Hen's  Place  on  the  Farm."  Bulletin  No.  150.  Kansas 
Experiment  Station. 

"Annual  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.''  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

"Year  Books."  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

"  Profitable  Stock  Feeding."     H.  R.  Smith. 


GENERAL  REFERENCES. 


WEEDS. 

KEFERENCES    FOR    SUPPLEMENTARY    READING. 

"  Weeds  in  Cities  and  Towns."     Year-book,  1898. 

•■  Migration  of  Weeds."     Year-book,  1896. 

"  Noxious  Weeds."  Bulletin  39,  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station. 

"  Russian  Thistle."  Bulletin  26,  Iowa  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station. 

"Twelve  of  Idaho's  Worst  Weeds."  Bulletin  14,  Idaho  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station. 

"  Noxious  Weeds  of  Wisconsin."  Bulletin  76,  Wisconsin  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station. 

"  Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them."  Farmers'  Bulletin  28, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

FOREST  TREES  OF  AMERICA. 

"  The  Uses  of  Wood."     Year-book,  1896. 

"  Tree  Planting  in  Waste  Places  on  the  Farm." 

"  The  Relation  of  Forests  to  Farms."     Year-book,  1895. 

"  Tree  Planting  in  the  Western  Plains."     Year-book,  1S95. 

"  Forestry  for  Farms."  Farmers'  Bulletin  67,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

"  The  Testing  of  Road  Materials."  Farmers'  Bulletin  79, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


AGRICULTURAL  PUBLICATIONS. 


Valuable  literature  upon  agricultural  subjects 
may  be  obtained  free  or  at  a  comparatively  low 
cost,  directions  for  securing  which  are  given 
below: 

PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  EDEPARTMENT 
OF  AGRICULTURE. 

1.  Year-books.     Very  valtiahle.     For  general  distribution.    Apply 

through  Congressman  of  your  district. 

2.  Farmers'    Bulletins.     Excellent.     Address   Secretary   of  Agri- 

culture, Washington,  D.  C. 

3.  Monthly  list  of  publications  and  "  Experiment  Station  Record." 

Address  Director  of  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

PUBLICATIONS  OF  STATE  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 

1.  Bulletins  issued  by  one's  own  State  Experiment  Station.     Ad- 

dress Director  of  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  and 
have  your  address  put  on  mailing  list  of  your  own  State  for 
publications. 

2.  Many   valuable  bulletins   may  often  be   obtained   from    other 

State  Experiment  Stations  by  asking  the  Director  of  the 
States  for  them. 

3.  On  the  following  page  is  a  list  of  State  Experiment  Stations  in 

the  United  States,  taken  from  "Experiment  Station  Record" 
of  1902. 


438 


AGRICULTURAL     EXPERIMENT 
STATIONS. 


Alabama — College  Station:  Auburn,  Canebrake  Station:  Union- 
town.     Tuskegee  Station:    'J'uskegee. 

Alaska — Sitka. 

Arizona — Tucson. 

Arkansas — Fayetteville. 

California — Berkeley. 

Colorado — Furt  Collins. 

Connecticut — State  Station:  New  Haven.      Storrs  Station:  Storrs. 

Delaware — Newark. 

Florida — Lake  City. 

Georgia — Experiment. 

Hawaii — Federal  Station:  Honolulic.  Sugar  Planters'  Station: 
Honolulu. 

I  d  aho — Moscoxv. 

Illinois — Urbana. 

Indiana — Lafayette. 

Iowa — Ames. 

Kansa — Manhattan. 

Kentucky — Lex  ingto  n . 

Louisiana — State  Station:  Baton  Rouf;e.  Sugar  Station:  Audubon 
Park.      North  Louisiana  Station:    Callunin. 

Maine — Orono. 

Maryland — College  Park. 

Massachusetts — Amherst. 

Michigan  — Agricu  Itu  ra  I  College. 

Minnesota — St.  Anthony  Park,  St.  Paul. 

Mississippi  — Agrieu  It  u  ra  I  College . 

Missouri — College  Station:  Columbia.  Fruit  Station:  Mountain 
Grove. 

Montana — Bozeman. 

Nebraska — Lincoln. 

Nevada — Reno. 

New  Jersey — A^exv  Brunswick. 

New  Hampshire — Durham. 

439 


4^0  AGRICULTURE. 

New  Mexico — Mesilla  Park. 

New  York— State  Station:   Geneva.     Cornell  Station:  Ithacti 

North  Dakota — Agricultural  Colle}  e. 

North  Carolina — Raleigh. 

Ohio — Wooster. 

Oklahoma — Stillwater. 

Oregon — Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania — State  College. 

Porto  Rico — Rio  Piedras. 

Rhode  Island — Kingston. 

South  Carolina— CA'WJi?;;  College. 

South  Dakota — Brookings. 

Tennessee — Knoxville. 

Texas — College  Station. 

Utah — Logan. 

Vermont — Burlington. 

Virginia — Blacksburg. 

Washington — Pullman. 

West  Virginia — MorgantowZc 

Wisconsin — Madison. 

Wyoming — Laramie^ 


PUBLISHING  HOUSES. 


Address  of  publishing  houses  whose  books 
have  been  mentioned  in  the  reference  lists  at 
the  end  of  the  various  chapters. 

The  number  in  the  reference  list  coxTesponds 
to  the  number  given  to  the  publishing  house  : 

(i)  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 

(2)  Comstock  Publishing  Co.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

(3)  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York. 

(4)  Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York. 

(5)  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.,  Philadelchia. 
^6)  A.  Flanagan,  Publisher,  Chicago. 

(7)  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  Boston. 

(8)  The  American  Book  Co.,  Chicago. 

(9)  A.  L.  Burt,  New  York. 

(10)  The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

(11)  The  Simmons  Publishing  Co.,  Springfield,  O. 


441 


GLOSSARY. 


Ab-ra'sion.     The  act  of  wearing  or  rubbing  off. 

Ad-he'sion.  The  attraction  between  unlike  or  distinct  paitlcles 
of  matter. 

Ad'ven-ti  tious.     Out  of  the  usual  place. 

Al-bu  mi-noids.     Organic  compounds  containing  nitrogen. 

At-a-vist-ic.  The  liability  of  any  characteristic  of  any  ancestor 
to  recur  in  subsequent  generations. 

A-tom'ic.  Pertaining  to  atoms,  the  ultimate  indivisible  particles 
of  matter. 

A-vail  able  food.  Food  which  is  in  such  a  condition  that  the 
plant  can  and  will  use  it. 

Balanced  ra  tion.  Food  consisting  of  such  proportions  of  vari- 
ous elements  that  the  least  possible  amount  will  be  wasted. 

Bar-rel.  That  part  of  an  animal's  body  containing  the  abdominal 
organs. 

Bris-ket.  The  projection  of  flesh  and  bone  just  anterior  to  and 
between  the  forelegs  of  cattle  and  sheep. 

Bud'ding^stick.     A  shoot  of  one  season's  growth. 

Cal-ca're-ous.     Composed  of,  or  containing  lime. 

Cam'bi-um.  The  ring  of  thin-walled  formative  tissue  between 
the  bark  and  wood  in  which  growth  takes  place. 

Car-bo-hy'drate.  Foods  containing  carbon  but  no  nitrogen; 
they  also  contain  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  the  same  pro- 
portion as  they  are  found  in  water. 

Cer'ci  (pi.  of  cer'cus).  The  jointed  antenniform  appendages  of 
the  posterior  somites  of  certain  insects. 

Chem'ic-al  af'fin'i-ty.  Attraction  which  acts  at  insensible  dis- 
tances between  atoms  of  unlike  elements,  forming  com- 
pounds. 

Chlo'ro-phyll.  Green  granular  matter  formed  by  the  leaves  and 
green  stems  of  plants. 

Chrys'a-lis.  Quiescent  state  of  butterflies  and  moths  from  which 
the  adult  insect  comes  forth. 

Co-he'sion.     Attraction  between  like  particles. 

Com'post.  Fertilizing  mixture;  stable  compost  means  barn-yard 
manure. 

Cor-rod'ing.     Eating  away  by  degrees. 

Dis-sem-i-na'tion.     Scattering. 

Dor'mant.     Inactive,  quiescent. 
442 


GLOSSARY.  443 

Dis  in'te-gra'tion.     Crumbling  to  fragments. 

E-mul'si-fy.     To  reduce  an   oily  substance    to  a  milky  fluid,  in 
which  the  fat  globules  are  in  a  very  finely  divided  state. 

En'to-mol'o-gy.     The  science   which  deals  with  the  life  history 
and  description  of  insects. 

Er-ro'ne-ous-Iy.     By  mistake;  not  rightly. 

Ex'cre-ment.     That  which   is  discharged   from  the  animal  body 
as  useless.     Ex-cre'ta. 

Firter=pa-per.     A  porous  unsized    paper  that  retains  the    sedi- 
ment when  liquids  are  passed  through  it. 

Fun'gi-cide.     A  preparation  which  kills  fungi. 

Fun'gus  (pi.   fun'gi),       A    flowerless    plant    lacking    chlorophyll 
(green  coloring-matter). 

Green  ma-nur'ing.     Vegetation  plowed  under  for  fertilizing  pur- 
poses. 

Hu'mic.      Pertaining  to  or  derived  from  vegetable  mold. 

Hu'mous,  adj.     Containing  humus. 

Humus,  «.     Decayed  vegetable  or  animal  matter. 

Hy-dra'tion.     Combining  with  water  to  form  a  hydrate,  which  is 
usually  a  neutral  salt.     Slaked  lime  is  a  hydrate. 

In-oc'u-late.     To    communicate    bacteria    germs    by   introducing 
matter  infected  by  them. 

In-sec'ti-cide.     A  preparation  to  kill  insects. 

La'bel.     To  apply  a  label  to,  to  mark  with  a  name,  etc. 

Li'chen.     Algae  and  fungi  leading  a  life  in  partnership. 

Marl.     A  mixed  earthy  substance  consisting  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
clay,  and  siliceous  sand  in  variable  proportions. 

Me'di-an.     An   ideal  line   dividing  the  body  of  an  animal  longi- 
tudinally and  symmetrically  into  right  and  left  halves. 

Mi'cro=or-gan-ism.      Microscopic   organism,  here   meaning   bac- 
teria. 

Mo-lec'u-lar  force.      Attraction  between  molecules. 

Muck.     Decayed  vegetable  matter. 

Nod'ule.     Small   rounded  masses,  knots,  or  prominences  formed 
on  roots  of  leguminous  plants  by  infesting  bacteria. 

Note.    Used  in  connection  with  exercises  and  experiments,  means 
observe  and  record  your  observation. 

Nox'ious.     Injurious;  destructive. 

Ox'i-da'tion.     Combining  with  oxygen  to  form  an  oxide. 

Par'a-sit'ic.     Living  upon  or  in,  or  deriving  its  nourishment  from 
some  other  living  being. 


444  GLOSSARY. 

Plu'mule.  The  bud.  or  first  shoot  above  the  cotyledons,  of  a. 
young  plantlet. 

Pol'lin-a'tion.     Conveying  pollen  from  stamens  to  pistil. 

Pre-cip'i-tate.  A  substance  which,  having  been  dissolved,  is 
again  separated  from  the  solution,  and  falls  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel. 

Pre-da'ceous.     Preying  upon  or  devouring  other  insects. 

Pu-bes'cent.     Covered  with  very  fine,  short  hairs. 

Pu-pat-ing.  Going  into  the  pupa  or  inactive  (usually)  stage,  from 
which  the  adult  insect  emerges. 

Rad'i-cle.  The  stem  part  of  the  embryo;  the  lower  part,  which 
forms  the  root-system. 

Raffia.  A  commercial  product  formed  from  several  species  of 
the  genus  Rapphia.  A  strong  fiber  used  for  tying  in 
nursery  work. 

Res'i-due.  That  which  remains  after  a  part  is  taken;  remainder; 
dregs. 

Sci'on.    A  shoot  of  one  season's  growth  used  in  bud  propagation. 

Seg'raent.  One  of  the  parts  into  which  any  body  naturally  sep- 
arates or  is  divided. 

Sil'age.     Green  food  preserved  in  a  silo. 

Si-li'ceOJS.     Containing  silica. 

Soil'ing.  The  system  of  feeding  farm  animals  in  a  barn  or  en- 
closure with  fresh  grass  or  green  fodders — as,  corn,  rye, 
and  oats. 

Spot";.  One  of  the  minute  grains  in  flowerless  plants  which  per- 
forms the  function  of  seed. 

Ster'il-ize.  To  make  unproductive;  to  destroy  all  spores  or 
germs  so  as  to  prevent  the  development  of  bacteria. 

Stock.     A  seedling  tree  used  in  bud  propagation. 

Strat'i-fied.     Divided  into  layers  or  strata. 

Trac'ta-bility.  That  disposition  in  animals  which  makes  them 
subject  to  man's  will;  capable  of  being  managed  or  con- 
trolled. 

U-ni-cel  lu-lar.     Consisting  of  but  one  cell. 

Vol  a-til-ize.     To  pass  off  in  vapor. 

Vol  u-ble.     Twining. 

Yolk.     The  oily  secretion  in  wool. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Acid   in    soil 96 

test   for 97 

Acid   measure 1 79 

Albumen 169 

Alfalfa 1 1  5,  1  JO 

as  a  food 122 

conditions    for    growing      .      .      120 

curing 122 

Alkaline   soil 98 

Alkali  wash 335 

Ammonia .S7,  99 

Ammonia,  Sulphate  i;f       ...       88 

Ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  .     338 

340,   342 

Analysis  of  feeding  stuffs     .     .      136 

Animals 33 

accumulations  of 35 

disintegration  by 34 

characteristics    of      ....     403 

domestic 394 

early    history 393 

improvement   in     ...     .  394.  400 

use    of 393 

Ants 34 

Apple   scab 340 

Arabians 406 

Argilaceous  soils.     Sec  Clay. 

.\rsenate   of   lead 301 

Ash  in  milk 170 

.\shes  as   fertilizers       .     .     .       91,  98 

Atavism 396 

Atmosphere 5-  1  1 

chemical  action 7 

composition 11 

movements 6 

work  of 11,25 

Babcock   test 175 

Bacteria 1  u 

conditions  necessary  for  growth  i  14 
cultures  of 113 


PAGE 

Bacteria  in  milk 164 

in   soil 3  I,  78,  98,  102 

nitrogen  fi.xing      .     .     110,  117,  120 

tubercle  forming 112 

Baltimore  oriole 327 

Barnyards,    Covered     .     102,  103,  147 

Beavers 36 

Hecch 373 

Bitter    rot 339 

Blackbird 310 

Black  rot 338 

Bone-black 90 

Bordeaux   mi.xturc    .      .      .        33S,  340 

nozzle •     .     .      .      305 

test 342 

Borers 322,  332 

round-headed  apple-tree     .     .     332 

Boulder   clay 44 

Breeding-jar 2^3 

Brown  rot 336 

Budding 229 

spring 230 

Buds,    Removal  of 276 

Butter 190,  198 

churning 192 

coloring         190 

composition 195 

estimating  yield 196 

grain  of 194.  i95 

keeping  tjuality 194 

marketing 196 

molding  and  wrajniing  .      .      .      197 

mottling 195 

overrun 196 

packing 196 

salting 194 

washing 194 

worker 195 

working 195 

Butter  fat 167.  181,  183 

Butterfly 297 

445 


446 


INDEX. 


PACK 

IJuttermilk i8i 

Butyrin i68 

Cambium,  function 272 

dying  back 274. 

active   and  inactive  ....     278 

capacity 403 

Capillarity 55 

Carbon y<j 

bisulpliide 305 

dioxide 9 

Carboliydrates 118,  133 

in   leguminous  plants     .     .     .      118 

Casein 169 

Castor  pomace 88 

Catalpa  tree 203 

Catch  crops 159 

Caterpillar        297 

Cattle 413 

Aberdeen  Angus 415 

Ayrshire 418 

beef 413 

dairy 413,  416 

Devoii 420 

Galloway 397 

Guernsey 418 

Hereford       .  415 

Jersey 417 

Shorthorns 414,421 

Sussex 416 

Centrifugal  machine     .     .     .  179,  187 

Chalcis  flies 2,22 

Churning 192,  194 

Churns 191 

Clay 46,  49,  5  I 

Clover,  as  roughage     .     .     .     .      119 
as  green   manuring  .     .     .119,  i-'d 

crimson 119 

red 118 

Codling-moth 330,331 

Compounding   rations  ....      140 

Concentrates 145 

Conformation 403 

Constitution 403 

Corn 246,  249 

score  card 247 

Uoonc  County   White    .     .  250,  251 

Cosmos    flowers 266 

Cottonseed-meal 88 


PAGE 

Cow-peas 123,  124 

as  a  food 125,  126 

yield 123 

Cows 172,  174 

breeds      .     .     .       171,  172,  173,  414 
food  aflfecting  milk  .     .     .  164,  173 

individuality  of 173 

period  of  lactation    ....      173 

Cream 182 

ripening 189 

separation 182 

temperature 192 

testing 181 

Creamer,   Cooley 185 

Crossing,  Limits  of,  and  results     260 

Cross-pollination 261 

Cross-section   of  stem  ....      273 

Crow 310 

Cuttings,  tireen  wood  ....     220 

hard   wood 225 

leaf 221 

root 228 

stem 221 

Cyanide   bottle 292 

Darwin 34 

Debris 299 

Denitrification 32 

Diatoms 18,  33 

Disparcne 301 

Drainage 64 

Drift 2^.44 

Drives 367 

Earthworm 34,  35 

Kim iii,  374 

Emasculation 263 

Energy,  Sources  of       ...     .  3 

Environment,   Changes  of     .     .       36 

Ether  extract 133 

heat  value  in  corn     ....      136 

I'eeding  stutTs      .....      144 

palatability 144 

I'ertility  of  the  soil       .      .     .     84,  104 

l-"ertilizers 86 

amount  to  be  used   .     .     .      93,  94 
connnercial.  Table  of     .     .     .       92 

when    used 95 

from  animal  sources     .     •       87, 88 


INDEX. 


447 


PAGE 

Fertilizers  from  mineral  sources  88 

from  vegetable  sources      .     .  88 

kinds 94 

how  applied 95 

time  to  apply 94 

Flower  parts 262 

Food,  Nitrogenous 132 

carbonaceous     13J 

Forage,   Green 146 

Frost 18 

creeping  action  of    .      .     .       19,  _'o 

Fungi 336 

Fungicides 341 

Gardening 349 

landscape 361,  365 

geometrical 364 

natural 366,  369 

school 349 

window 359 

Geotropism J09 

Glaciers 20 

Grafting 232 

cleft J33 

crown 237 

piece-root 233 

stem 235 

top -'35 

whip 233 

whole-root 233 

Grafting-wax 237,  276 

Grasshopper 295 

Gravity 4,  6,  13 

Guano 36 

Gypsum 89,99,  102,  103 

Harrows 70 

Hawk 310 

Heading  trees  low 280 

Heredity   in   animals     ....  394 

in   plants 245 

Hogs 426 

Berkshire 428 

Chesterwhite 429 

Duroc   Jersey 428 

Hampshire 431 

Poland   China 428 

Tamwortli 430 

Yorkshire 429,  430 


P.\GE 

Horses 404 

coach        .     .  404,407,409,410 

draft 404,  410,  412 

light 404,  405 

saddle 407 

prehistoric 393 

Humus 33.  38,  48,  5' 

Hydrogen 79 

Ice 19 

Icebergs 24 

Ice   sheets 20 

Ichneumon-fly 321 

Insects 289 

biting 298 

characters   of 289 

metamorphosis   of      ...     .  290 

predaccous 317 

sucking 298 

water   forms 294 

Insecticides 300 

contact 302 

poisonous 300 

Insect  net 291 

Irrigation 38,  66 

Kerosene  emulsion 303 

Lace- winged   fly 319 

Ladybug 317 

Lakes 17 

Landslides        17 

Larva; 290 

Lawns 368 

Layering 237 

mound 238 

pot 239 

simple 238 

Lead    paint 276 

Leaf   mould 48 

Leguminous  plants 107 

as   food 116 

chemical   action 115 

plants,   for   green   manuring  .  116 

mechanical    action      .      .      .      .  115 

Life 27 

plant  life.     Sec  Plants, 
animal  life.     Sec  Animals. 

Lime 46,  96 

as  an  insecticide  and  fungicide  98 


448 


INDEX. 


PACE 

Lime  effect  upon  soil  ....  96 
effect  upon  plants  ....  96 
for   neutralizing  acids  ...       99 

Loam 48,  49,  50 

Meadow-lark 308 

Milk 161 

albumen        169 

ash 170 

bacteria  in 164 

care 163 

casein 169 

color 171 

composition 167 

odors 163,  184 

olein 168 

Pasteurization 167 

pure  and  impure       ....  165 

quality  and  quantity      .      .     .  171 

sampling 180 

secretion  of 163 

sugar        170 

temperature 166 

testing 17s 

Moisture  constitutes  plant  food 

62,  63 

conveys  plant  food  ....  60 

dissolves  plant  food  ....  60 

regulates   temperature   ...  62 

Mosquitoes 299 

Moss-rose 265 

Mulching 70 

Nectarine 265 

Nitrate 87,  94 

Nitrification 3i>78 

Nitrogen 31,48,  109 

available 87 

compounds  of 86 

effect   of 80 

exhaustion    from  the   soil   .      .      109 

in   plants 79 

how   obtained 81 

Nutritive    ratio 138 

wide  and   narrow       ....      139 
Nymphs        290.  J97 

Ocean 17 

Oleomargarine 168 

Orange  flower 263 

Osmosis 61 


PAGE 

Owl 310 

Oxygen        9,  79 

Paris   Green 300 

Paths 367 

Perpetuating  species     ....     271 

Phosphate 48,  82 

deposits  of 90 

of    lime 89 

Phosphorus 82 

compounds   of 89 

function  of 82 

in   plants 82 

Pine    tar 276 

Pipette 178,  182 

Planker        71 

Plant-lice 299,  323,  325 

Plants,  chemical  effects    ...       30 

deposits  of 33 

food   of 78 

amount   needed      ....        94 

from  water 62,  79 

mechanical  effects     ....       28 
protecting    the    soil    .   28,  30,  36,  37 

repotting 224 

Plowing 67,  73 

Potash 48 

Potassium 84,  9 1 

compounds  of 91 

Potting   plants 226 

Poultry        431 

Brahmas 432 

Cochins 432 

Langshans 432 

Leghorns 431 

Minorcas 431 

Orpingtons         432 

Rocks 432 

Wyandottcs 432 

Prairie   dog 34 

Principles  of  feeding  .     .     .     .      131 

profit    in 131 

Propagation    of    plants       .      .      .      201 

from   buds 219 

diagram   of 220 

Protein         i  16,  132 

Pruning -71.286 

at    transplanting 279 

effect   of  inipr<ii)er     .      .        274.  275 
fall 278 


INDEX. 


449 


PAGE 

Pruning,    general    principles    of  jyi 

hardy   shrubs J85 

large  limbs J74 

root 284 

to  induce  fruitfulness  .     .     .  .'84 

to  prevent  overbearing      .     .  .-Ss 

shade-trees 282 

spring J78 

when  to  prune 277 

why  to  prune 279 

Quail 315 

Quality 402 

Relation     between     root-system 

and   leaf-system     .     .     .     .  272 

Rivers 15 

Rolling yi 

Rose-slug 324 

Rotation    of   crops 153 

courses    in 157 

effect  upon   insects  .     .        157,  299 

effect  upon   soil 153 

effect  upon  weeds     .     .     .     .  156 

Roughage 145 

Sand 7,  8,  46 

Scale   insects 299,  319 

Scheele's   green 300 

School   grounds 349 

Scion 233 

Seed-bed,  preparation  of  .     .     .  67 

Seedlings,  peach 231 

isolation  of 249 

variation    of 253 

Seeds 201 

age   of      .     .     - 206 

germination   of     .     ,     .     .     .  207 

preservation   of 207 

purity 204 

seed  coat 201 

selection   of 246 

stratification 202 

testing 202 

treatment  of  fine  seeds      .      .  211 

vitality 204 

Selection 245 

artificial         398 

diagram   of 267 

natural 297 


PACE 

'"'licep 4^, 

Cheviot 425 

C-otswold 426 

Dorset      .     .           425 

English   Down 425 

Leicester 426 

Lincoln 426 

Merino    ...           ....  424 

Rambouillet 424 

Tunis 425 

Shrubs        349,  375,  378 

Silage 147 

Skim-milk   ........  181 

SnowsHdes 20 

Soiling 146 

crops 159 

Soils,  acidity 97 

alkaline 98 

alluvial 44 

chemical  analysis       ....  85 

classification  and  properties  .  42 

clayey 46, 49 

collecting     .          47 

fertility 84 

foothold  for  plants  ....  77 

furnishes    plant-food      ...  77 

inoculation   of iio 

moisture  and  preparation  of  .  57 

physical  properties    ....  49 

pores   of 54 

sandy 46,  49 

sedentary 43 

storehouse   for   water      ...  77 

subsoil 43 

temperature   of 50 

transported 44 

Soy-bean 112,  125,  126 

Stable    compost 99 

Starch  in  wood 84 

Stock 233 

Sparrow 310.  3'-^.  315 

Spider 307 

Sugar   maple 373 

Sycamore 373 


Temperament       

Temperature,  curve 
regulated  by  soil 
regulated   by   rains     . 

Tent-caterpillar,   American 


403 


62 
324 


L 


450 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Tetit-catcrpillai-,    forest      .     .     .     3^8 

Test  bottles 177,  i7g 

'Ihoroughlireds 405 

Till 44 

Tillage,   surface       70 

Timber,  trees  grown  for  .        ^'81,  -'82 

Toad 307 

Tobacco 304 

di:st 304 

Tobacco,   tea 304 

smudge 304 

Tomato  worm 299 

Trees 351,370,37^ 

Trotters 407 

Underground  streams  ....        16 

Variation 212,  245 

bud 265 

causes   of 214,397 

fixation   of ji6 

induced  by  cross  fertilization     259 

induced  by  light 256 

induced  by  pruning  .  .  .  .  257 
of   animals 395 

\'arieties,    new 250 


PAGE 

\'egetation    experiments    ...       85 
Vetch lu 

inoculation   of        .     .     .        i  11,  112 

Water 12,25 

assorting   power 16 

capillary 59 

capillary  rise  of  .  .  .  .  53.  71 
chemical  action  of  ...  .  12 
deposition  by  .  .  .  14,  15,  16,  j  8 
disintegrating   power     .     .        13,  25 

frozen 18 

ground 59 

liygroscopic 60 

mechanical  action  of  .  .  .  13 
percolation  of  ...  52,  65,  70 
transporting  power  of  .     .     .        14 

Waves 17 

Weeds 312 

seed 314 

Winds 6 

work   of 6,  7 

Wolff-Lehmann    I'eeding  Stand- 
ards       136 

\\ounds,  treatment  of       ...      276 

Wren 308 


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First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility 

By  Alfreii  Vivian.  There  is  no  subject  of  more  vitai 
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The  Study  of  Corn 

By  Prof.  V.  M.  Shoesmith.  A  most  helpful  book  to  all 
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Soils 

By  Charles  William  Burkett,  Director  Kansas  Agri- 
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Weeds  of  the  Farm  Garden 

By  L.  H.  Pammel.  The  enormous  losses,  amounting 
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Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors 

By  J.  B.  Davidson  and  L.  W.  Chase.  Farm  Machinery 
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The  Book  of  Wheat 

By  P.  T.  DoNDLiXGER.  This  book  comprises  a  complete 
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The  Cereals  in  America 

By  Thomas  F.  Hunt,  M.S.,  D.Agri.,  Professor  of  Agron- 
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The  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America 

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History,  Cultivation  and  Merits.  Its  Uses  as  a  Forage 
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The  New  Onion  Culture 

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Animal  Breeding 

By  Thomas  Shaw.  Tliis  l)ook  is  the  most  complete  and 
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Illustrated.     40.1;  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth.     .      .      .     $1.50 

Forage  Crops  Other  Than  Grasses 

By  Thomas  Shaw.  How  to  cultivate,  harvest  and  use 
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Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo 

By  Thomas  Shaw.  The  growing  and  feeding  of  all  kinds 
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The  Study  of  Breeds 

By  Thomas  Shaw.  Origin,  history,  distribution,  charac- 
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Cloth $1.50 

Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them 

By  Thomas  Shaw.  This  is  the  first  book  published  which 
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Illustrated.    5  x  7  inches.    337  pages.     Cloth.    Net    .      .     $1.00 

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Rural  School  Agriculture 

By  Charles  W.  Uavis.  A  book  intended  for  the  use  of 
both  teachers  and  pupils.  Its  aim  is  to  enlist  the  interest  of 
the  boys  oi  the  farm  and  awaken  in  their  minds  the  fact  that 
the  problems  of  the  farm  are  great  enough  to  command  all  the 
brain  power  they  can  summon.  The  book  is  a  manual  of  exer- 
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with  any  text-book  of  agriculture,  or  without  a  text-book.  The 
exercises  will  enable  the  student  to  think,  and  to  work  out  the 
scientific  principles  underlying  some  of  the  most  important 
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of  agriculture  in  the  rural  schools,  the  laboratory  phase  is  al- 
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number  of  questions  which  prepare  the  way  for  further  re- 
search work.  The  material  needed  for  performing  the  experi- 
ments is  simple,  and  can  be  devised  by  the  teacher  and  pupils, 
or  brought  from  the  homes.  Illustrated.  300  pages.  Cloth. 
5x7  inches $1.00 

Agriculture   Through   the   Laboratory  and   School 
Garden 

By  C.  R.  Jackson  and  Mrs.  L.  S.  Daugherty.  As  its  name 
implies,  this  book  gives  explicit  directions  for  actual  work  in 
the  laboratory  and  the  school  garden,  through  which  agri- 
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to  present  actual  experimental  work  in  every  phase  of  the 
subject  possible,  and  to  state  the  directions  for  such  work  so 
that  the  student  can  perform  it  independently  of  the  teacher, 
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prehensive, practical,  scientific,  yet  simple  discussion  of  such 
facts  as  are  necessary  to  the  understanding  of  many  of  the 
agricultural  principles  involved  in  every-day  life.  The  book, 
although  primarily  intended  for  use  in  schools,  is  equally 
valuable  to  any  one  desiring  to  obtain  in  an  easy  and  pleasing 
manner  a  general  knowledge  of  elementary  agriculture.  I-'uUy 
illustrated.     5,'/' x  8  inches.    462  pages.     Cloth.     Net     .     $1.50 

Soil  Physics  Laboratory  Guide 

By  W.  G.  Stevenson  and  I.  O.  Schaub.  A  carefully  out- 
lined series  of  experiments  in  soil  physics.  A  portion  of  the 
experiments  outlined  in  this  guide  have  been  used  quite  gen- 
erally in  recent  years.  The  exercises  (of  which  there  are  40) 
are  listed  in  a  logical  order  with  reference  to  their  relation 
to  each  other  and  the  skill  required  on  the  part  of  the  student. 
Illustrated.     About  100  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth.     .     $o.,';o 

(1/") 


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